Bardick Snake (Echiopsis curta)

The bardick is a small snake found in leaf litter and among vegetation debris in semi-arid areas of the southern part of the continent. It is grey or grey-brown in colour and typically grows to no mre than about 60cm in length. The head is distinct, being broader tha the neck. It preys on small lizards, frogs and small mammals. Its venomous status is uncertain, but the venom has been found to have similarities with death adder venom. Females produce a litter of between 3 and 14 live young.

Description

The Bardic Snake is an evil Yuan-Ti character. The Yuan-Ti are known as a deceitful and controlling race, and so the idea of one who would sing lies in order to weaken an enemy is fitting, as is the Bard's use of enchantment spells to control enemies. This particular Yuan-Ti is also an experienced veteran warrior and has dabbled in necromancy (hence the Blackguard and Pale Master levels). Because of these factors, this particular build has very solid role-playing qualities. However, it is made also as a power build designed to gain both Epic Divine Might and Hymn of Requiem while achieving high saves, spell resistance, and AC as well as significant power with enchantment spells. It is extremely versatile, with countless options for how to approach a battle. As such, there are very few types of enemies that this character is hard-pressed to deal with. In fact, this build tested favorably against most builds I tested it against in the Battle of the Builds mod. This is remarkable considering 1v1 completely ignores the important party buffing aspect of Bards.

Part of the aim of this build is versatility. It is fun to have multiple viable options on how to approach a battle. The Bardic Snake can approach things in a lot of different ways. He can be use epic divine might to be a major melee damage dealer. He can pump up his defense with inspirations, songs, and spells to become a tank. He can debuff opponent's will saves and then throw out hard to resist enchantment spells. He can throw down a series of bombs like curse song, hymn of requiem, and ice storm and watch like a Wizard or Sorcerer does as his party mops up the severely weakened/damaged enemies. Inspire Regeneration can make him a poor man's cleric between battles. Pumping up Hide and Move Silently (which I dont do, but is certainly possible) and using inspire competence or using invisibility can make him a good scout. Inspire competence in conjunction with sleight of hand or appraise or a conversation skill can get you things you want more easily. With a high Use Magic Device, your battle options extend to any arcane OR divine spell that can be found on a scroll or wand! The Bardic Snake will also be the major buffer for your party like any other Bard. The options are just endless with this character! You can be creative too. For instance, I recently discovered that with NWN2s dumb AI, it is a legitimate strategy to use Inspire Slowness and then have your Bard run in and draw all the aggro of a group. He can run around without getting caught while the rest of your party gets easy attacks of opportunity and sneak attacks on the chasing enemies without taking damage. If your party's health is too low to win a battle head on, this Bard tactic can be a lifesaver. Anyways, let's get down to the essentials:


Range

E. curta ranges from southern Western Australia through South Australia, and west to Victoria and New South Wales. It is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN..

Habitat

E. curtis inhabit semiarid grasslands and shrublands. They are usually found under rocks, debris, fallen vegetation, etc.

Food and Venom

The species is nocturnal. They prey upon a wide variety of rodents, lizards, amphibians, and sometimes birds and insects- an unusual variety for a small elapid. These snakes are venomous, and, like all elapids, inject their venom swiftly through fangs placed in the front of the jaw.

Reproduction

Little is known about either of these snakes' reproductive habits except that Bardicks are ovoviviparous, and that females give birth to anywhere from 3-14 young around August.

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Most Venomous Snakes in the World

 1.Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus): It is one of the most venomous and deadliest snakes in the world. There are three main sub-species of Taipan such as Papuan Taipan (Oxyuranus s. canni), Western or Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus Microlepidotus) or (Fierce Snake) and Common or Coastal Taipan (Oxyuranus Scutellatus). Taipans are found in Australia and New Guinea. Fierce snake or Inland Taipan is more toxic as compared to Papuan Taipan and Coastal Taipan. Inland Taipan is olive or brown in appearance, with uniformly black head or black marking on the head. Its habitat is grasslands and dry plains. Common or Coastal Taipan is dark or light brown in color with a paler shade on the sides and underside and lightly keeled scales. It is about 6 ft in length. It is found in the open woodlands and forests.

 2. Krait: This highly poisonous snake is found in Asia. It appears black or bluish-black in color with a white narrow cross-bands and a narrow head. Its average length is about 90cms. It is more active at night than during the day. It is 15 times more deadly than the common cobra. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin, which causes the respiratory failure.
 
3. King cobra: It is world's largest venomous snake. Its average length is about 3.5 meters and it can be maximum 5.5 meters long. It appears uniformly brown, olive or green in color with black cross-bands. King cobra is commonly found in Southern China, Thailand, Philippines, South India and Malaysia Peninsula. Its venom is a neurotoxin type.
 
4. Russell's viper: Russell's viper is more commonly found in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysian Peninsula, Southern China, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and surrounding islands. It has a light brown body with three rows of black or brown splotches having white or yellow border. Its average length is about 1 meter. It is responsible for relatively more human deaths than any other types of venomous snake. While attacking, it coils tightly, hisses and strikes with such a high speed that its victim gets little chance to escape. Its venom is of hemotoxin type, which is a powerful coagulant, causing damage to blood cells and tissues.
  
5. Black Mamba: It is Africa's most feared venomous snake. It is found in Africa's open woodlands and African savannas. It is highly toxic and notoriously aggressive. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin. It appears uniformly black or brown. Its average length is about 4.3 meters. Its mouth has a black internal lining. It is known as world's fastest land snake with the top speed of 16-19 km/hr.

 6.Tiger snake: It is olive or dark brown in color with olive or yellowish belly and cross-bands. Its subspecies are found in Victoria and Tasmania and it is uniformly black. Its average length is about 1.2 to 1.8 meters. It is one of the most venomous snakes found in Australia. It is also found in New Guinea, Tasmania and Bass Strait Islands. Its venom is a potent neurotoxin that affects the central nervous system. It produces venom in high quantities, with an average yield of about 35 mg to 180 mg.
  
7. Western Brown Snake (Pseudonaja nuchalis): It is found in the grasslands, forests, deserts and gravelly plains. It is a native of Australia. It has a narrow black head and black neck. It may be black or light brown in color with narrow dark crossbars or a series of lighter bands around the body. It is about 1.5 meters in length. Its venom is neurotoxic.

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RING-NAKED SNAKE (Diadophis punctatus)

The ringneck snake or ring-necked snake (Diadophis punctatus) is a colubrid snake species. It is found throughout much of the United States, central Mexico, and south eastern Canada[2]. Ring-necked snakes are secretive, nocturnal snakes that are rarely seen during the day time. They are slightly venomous but their non-aggressive nature and small rear-facing fangs pose little threat to humans who wish to handle them. They are best known for their unique defense posture of curling up their tails exposing their bright red-orange posterior, ventral surface when threatened. Ring-necked snakes are believed to be fairly abundant throughout most of their range though no scientific evaluation supports this theory. Scientific research is lacking for the ring-necked snake and more in-depth investigations are greatly needed[3]. It is the only species within the genus Diadophis, and currently fourteen subspecies are identified, but many herpetologists question the morphologically-based classifications[4].
The Northern Ringneck Snake is a smallish snake, only growing up to two feet long. It is bluish-black in color, with a yellow or red ring around its neck, and a matching belly. This snake has a large, flat head.Northern Ringneck Snakes live just about anywhere, including forests, grassy places, and streamsides.They usually hide under logs, rocks, leaf litter, or matted plants.They are nocturnal, so they are mostly seen at night.

                                                                                  

  Physical description

Ring-necked snakes are fairly similar in morphology throughout much of their distribution.

Dorsal coloration is solid olive, brown, bluish gray to black, broken only by a distinct yellow, red, or yellow-orange neck band[2][5]. There are a few populations in New Mexico, Utah, and other distinct locations that do not have the distinctive neck band[2]. Additionally individuals may have a reduced or partially colored neck band that is hard to distinguish; coloration may also be more of a cream color rather than bright orange or red[5]. Head coloration tends to be slightly darker than the rest of the body with tendencies to be blacker than grey or olive[5]. Ventrally the snakes exhibit a yellow-orange to red coloration broken by crescent shaped black spots along the margins[2]. Sometimes individuals lack the distinct ventral coloration but typically retain the black spotting[5]. Rarely do individuals lack both the ventral or neck band coloration so use of those two characteristics are the most simple way to distinguish the species[2].

Size also varies across the species distribution. Typically adults measure 25-38 cm (10-15 inches)[2], except for D. punctatus regalis which measures 38-46 cm (15-18 inches)[5]. First year juvenile snakes are typically about 20 cm (4 inches) and grow about 2-5 cm (¾-2 inches) a year depending on the developmental stage or resource availability[5].

Ring-necked snakes have smooth scales with 15-17 scale rows at mid body[2]. Males typically have small tubercles on their scales just anterior to the vent which are usually absent in females[2].

Habitat

Ring-necked snakes occur in a wide variety of habitats. Preference seems to be determined by areas with abundant cover and denning locations spaces[5]. Northern and western species are found within open woodlands near rocky hillsides, or in wetter environments with abundant cover or woody debris[2]. Southern species exist primarily within riparian and wet environments, especially in more arid habitats[5]. Stebbins (2003) identified the species as a snake of moist habitats, identifying that moist soil conditions were the preferred substrate[2]. Ring-necked snakes are also not found above an elevation of 2200 meters[2]. In northern regions, dens are also important in identifying suitable ring-necked snake habitat. Dens are usually shared communally[5], and are identifiable by an existent subsurface crevasse or hole that is deep enough to prevent freezing temperatures. Since it is a woodland reptile, it can commonly also be found under wood or scraps. Because of the hot weather, they tend to make holes and burrow or they decide to hide under rocks or any suitable material. They are normally found in flatland forests.

Behavior
The diet of the ring-necked snake consists primarily of smaller salamanders, lizards, frogs, earthworms, and some juvenile snakes of other species[5]. The frequency at which prey species are chosen is dependent on their availability within the habitat[5]. Ring-necked snakes use a combination of constriction and envenomation to secure their prey. The snakes do not have a true venom gland, but they do have an analogous structure called the Duvernoy’s gland derived from the same tissue[3]. Most subspecies are rear-fanged with the last maxillary teeth on both sides of the upper jaw being longer and channeled[3]; the notable exception is D. punctatus edwardsii which is fangless[5]. The venom is produced in the Duvernoy's gland located directly behind the eye[3]. It then drains out of an opening at the rear of the maxillary tooth[3]. Ring-necked snakes first strike and then secure the prey using constriction. Next they maneuver their mouths forward ensuring that the last maxillary tooth punctures the skin allowing the venom to enter the prey's tissue[3]. Ring-necked snakes are rarely aggressive to larger predators suggesting that their venom evolved as a feeding strategy rather than a defense strategy. Rather than trying to bite a predator, the snake winds up its tail into a corkscrew, exposing the brightly colored belly[5].

Ring-necked snakes are primarily nocturnal or highly crepuscular, though some diurnal activity has been observed[5]. Individuals are sometimes found during the day, especially on cloudy days, sunning themselves to gain heat[5]. Yet, most individuals lie directly under surface objects that are warmed in the sun and use conduction with that object to gain heat[5]. Even though ring-necked snakes are highly secretive, they do display some social structure; but the exact social hierarchies have never been evaluated[5]. Many populations have been identified to have large colonies of more than 100 individuals, and some reports identify that some smaller colonies occupy the same microhabitats[5].

Reproduction
Ring-necked snakes usually mate in the spring. However, in some subspecies mating occurs in the fall, and delayed implantation occurs.[5]. Females attract males by secreting pheromones from their skin[5]. Once the male finds a female he starts by rubbing his closed mouth along the female’s body[5]. Then the male bites the female around her neck ring maneuvering to align their bodies so sperm can be inserted into the female’s vent[5]. Females lay their eggs in loose aerated soils under a rock or in a rotted log[4]. Three to ten eggs are deposited in early summer and hatch in August or September[5]. The egg is elongate with a white color contrasted by yellow ends[5]. When hatched, juveniles are precocial and fend for themselves without parental care[5].

Distribution
Ring-necked snakes are fairly common throughout much of the United States extending into Southeastern Canada and central Mexico. Eastern populations cover the entire eastern seaboard from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence continuous through the gulf coast of north Texas[5]. Distribution moves inland into northern Minnesota continuing diagonally through the US to include all of Iowa, eastern Nebraska, and most of Kansas[5]. In the western US the distribution is significantly less continuous, with spotty distinct population segments through most of the Pacific Northwest[2]. Populations extend from south-central Washington continuing along the extreme west coast into Mexico[2]. Population segments extend inland into western Idaho, through southern Nevada, into central Utah, and continuing south through Arizona and central Mexico[2

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Rattlesnake:-

Crotalus cerastes

Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous snakes of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus[1] of the subfamily Crotalinae ("pit vipers"). There are 32 known species of rattlesnake, with between 65-70 subspecies.[2], all of which are native to the Americas - ranging from southern Alberta, and southern British Columbia Canada to Central Argentina.

Rattlesnakes are predators who live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small animals such as birds and rodents. They kill their prey with a venomous bite, rather than by constricting. All rattlesnakes possess a set of fangs with which they inject large quantities of hemotoxic venom. The venom travels through the bloodstream, destroying tissue and causing swelling, internal bleeding, and intense pain. Some species, such as the Mojave Rattlesnake, additionally possess a neurotoxic component in their venom that causes paralysis and other nervous symptoms.

The threat of envenomation, advertised with the shaking of the rattle, deters many predators. However, rattlesnakes fall prey to hawks, weasels, king snakes, and a variety of other species. Rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon as neonates, while they are still weak and mentally immature. Very large numbers of rattlesnakes are killed by humans. Rattlesnake populations in many areas are severely threatened by habitat destruction, poaching, and extermination campaigns.

Rattlesnake bites are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in North America, and cause approximately 82% of fatalities. However, rattlesnakes rarely bite unless provoked or threatened; and if treated promptly, the bites are rarely fatal.

Range and habitat

Rattlesnakes are native to the Americas, living in diverse habitats from Southwestern Canada to Central Argentina. The large majority of species live in the American Southwest and Mexico. Four species may be found east of the Mississippi river, and two in South America. In the United States, the state with the most forms of rattlesnakes is Arizona, with seventeen species and subspecies.[5][6]

Rattlesnakes are found in almost every type of habitat that is capable of supporting terrestrial ectothermic vertebrates; but individual species can have extremely specific habitat requirements, only able to live within certain plant associations in a narrow range of altitudes. Most species live near open, rocky areas. Rocks offer them cover from predators, plentiful prey (e.g. rodents, lizard, insects, etc. that live amidst the rocks), and open basking areas. However, rattlesnakes can also be found in a wide variety of other habitats including prairies, marshes, deserts, and forests.[7] Rattlesnakes prefer a temperature range between 80 and 90°F (26-32°C), but can survive temperatures below freezing, recovering from brief exposure to temperatures as low as 4°F, and surviving for several days in temperatures as low as 37°F.[8]

Evidence has been collected to show the most probable ancestral area of rattlesnakes is the Sierra Madre Occidental region in Mexico. This same study found the most probable vegetation or habitat of the ancestral area to be pine-oak forests



Prey

Rattlesnakes consume mice, rats, small birds and other small animals[9], playing an important ecological role by limiting the size of rodent populations, which prevents crop damage and stabilizes ecosystems.[10]

Rattlesnakes lie in wait for their prey, or hunt for it in holes.[11] The prey are killed quickly with a venomous bite as opposed to constricting. If the bitten prey moves away before dying, the rattlesnake can follow it by its scent.[12][13] When it locates the fallen prey, it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout, flicking its tongue, and using its sense of smell. Once the prey has become incapacitated, the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth. The prey is then ingested head-first, which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a manner which minimizes the girth of the meal.[14] The gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful, allowing for the digestion of bone as well as flesh. Optimal digestion occurs when the snake maintains a body temperature of between 80 and 85°F (25-29°C). If the prey is small, the rattlesnake will often continue hunting. If it was an adequate meal, the snake will find a warm, safe location in which to coil up and rest until the prey is digested.[15]

Rattlesnakes are believed to require at least their own body weight in water annually in order to remain hydrated. The method in which they drink depends on the water source. In larger bodies of water (streams, ponds, etc.) they will submerge their head and ingest water by opening and closing their jaw, which sucks in water. If drinking dew, or drinking from small puddles, they will sip the liquid either by capillary action or by flattening and flooding the lower jaw.

Venom

Most species of rattlesnakes have hemotoxic venom, destroying tissue, causing necrosis and coagulopathy (disrupted blood clotting).[30] In the U.S., some varieties of the Mojave rattlesnake (C. scutulatus) have a presynaptic neurotoxic venom component known as Mojave Type A toxin, which can cause severe paralysis.[30][31][32] C. scutulatus is widely regarded as producing one of the most toxic snake venoms in the Americas, based on LD50 studies in laboratory mice.[33]

Rattlesnake venom is a mixture of 5-15 enyzmes, various metal ions, biogenic amines, lipids, free amino acids, proteins, and polypeptides. It contains components designed to immobilize and disable the prey, as well as digestive enzymes which break down tissue to prepare for later ingestion.[25][29] The venom is very stable, and retains its toxicity for many years in storage.[25]

Older snakes possess more potent venom, and larger snakes are frequently capable of storing larger volumes of it.

Antivenom

Crotaline antivenom (or "antivenin") is commonly used to treat the effects of local and systemic pit viper envenomations.[72] The first step in the production of crotaline antivenom is collecting ("milking") the venom of a live rattlesnake - usually from the Western Diamondback (Crotalus atrox), Eastern Diamondback (Crotalus adamanteus), South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissis terrificus), or fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox). The extracted venom is then diluted and injected into horses, goats, or sheep, whose immune systems produce antibodies that protect from the toxic effects of the venom. These antibodies accumulate in the blood, which is then extracted and centrifuged to separate the red blood cells. The resulting serum is purified into a lyophilized powder, which is packaged for distribution and later use by human patients.[73][74]

Because antivenom is derived from horse animal, people generally display an allergic response during infusion, known as serum sickness.

Safety and first aid:-

 Rattlesnakes are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in North America, and are a significant cause in Central and South America.

Avoiding bites:-

 

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid wide open spaces where they cannot hide from predators, and will generally avoid humans if they are aware of their approach.[60] Rattlesnakes rarely bite unless they feel threatened or provoked. A large majority of victims (~ 72%[61]) are males, often young and intoxicated. Approximately half of bites occur in cases where the victim saw the snake, yet made no effort to move away.[25]

Hikers and campers should avoid contact with rattlesnakes by remaining observant and not approaching the animals. Hikers are advised to be particularly careful when negotiating fallen logs or boulders and when near rocky outcroppings and ledges where rattlesnakes may be hiding or sunning themselves. However, snakes will occasionally sun themselves in the middle of a trail, so such areas are not the only places where they are encountered. When encountering a rattlesnake on a trail, hikers are advised to keep their distance and allow the snake room to retreat.[citation needed]

Caution is advised even when snakes are believed to be dead; rattlesnake heads can see, flick the tongue, and inflict poisonous bites for up to an hour after being severed from the body.

Effect of bites on humans
Rattlesnake bite injury:-

Rattlesnake bites are rarely fatal to humans, if treated promptly.[30] Between 7,000 and 8,000 people are estimated to have been bitten by venomous snakes in the United States each year, and about five of those die.[64] The most important factor in determining survival following a severe envenomation is the amount of time elapsed between the bite and treatment. Most deaths occur between 6 and 48 hours after the bite. However, if antivenom treatment is given within 1–2 hours of the bite, the probability of recovery is greater than 99%.[65]

When a bite occurs, the amount of venom injected is under voluntary control by the snake. The amount released is dependent on a variety of factors including the condition of the snake (e.g. having long, healthy fangs and a full venom sack) and its temperament (an angry, hungry snake that has just been stepped on vs. a satiated snake that was merely surprised by walking near it).[66] Approximately 20% of bites result in no envenomation at all. A lack of burning pain and edema 1 cm away from the fang marks after 1 hour, suggests that either no or minimal envenomation occurred. A lack of edema or erythema in the area of the bite after 6–8 hours indicates a lack of envenomation for most rattlesnake bites.[67]

Common symptoms include swelling, severe pain, weakness, anxiety, nausea and vomiting, hemorrhaging, perspiration, and heart failure.[66][68] Local pain following envenomation is often intense, increasing with the ensuing edema.[66] In general, children experience more severe symptoms because they receive a larger amount of venom per kilogram of body mass.

Emergency response:-

Data on the effectiveness of first aid techniques for rattlesnake bites is limited.[69] However, general recommendations for first aid in the field are as follows:

    Remain calm, and retreat from the snake at least 10–15 feet. Arrange to have the victim transported to a medical facility as soon as possible.[69]
    Remove restrictive clothing items (rings, bracelets, watches, buttoned shirts, etc.) from the victim.[69][70]
    Splint or otherwise immobilize any bitten limbs, and keep them below heart level.[30][34][69][71] If (and only if) the victim is more than 1–2 hours away from a medical facility, it is recommended to place a lightly constricting band (that admits one finger beneath it) above the bitten area to prevent the systemic spread of the venom.[69]
    Keep victims calm; put them at rest; keep them warm and give them comfort and reassurance (which will lower their heart rate, slowing the spread of the venom). However, keeping a victim's heart rate down should never interfere with getting him or her to a medical facility.[69]

In no case should tourniquets be used, nor should any incisions or suction be applied to the wound

Food

Journalist Alistair Cooke claims that rattlesnake tastes "just like chicken, only tougher."^[82] Others have compared the flavor to a wide range of other meats, including veal, frog, tortoise, quail, fish, rabbit, and even canned tuna.

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Big Four (Indian snakes)

The Big Four are the four venomous snake species responsible for causing the most snake bite cases in South Asia (mostly in India).

Indian cobra, Naja naja, probably the most famous of all Indian snakes :-

Common krait, Bungarus caeruleus:-

Russell's viper, Daboia russelii:-

Saw-scaled viper, Echis carinatus:-

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Garter snake

The Garter snake is a Colubrid snake genus (Thamnophis) common across North America, ranging from Alaska and Canada to Central America. It is the single most widely distributed genus of reptile in North America[citation needed]. The garter snake is also the Massachusetts state reptile.[1]

There is no real consensus on the classification of species of Thamnophis. Disagreement among taxonomists and sources, such as field guides, over whether two types of snakes are separate species or subspecies of the same species is common. They are also closely related to the snakes of the genus Nerodia, and some species have been moved back and forth between genera.

Coast garter snake

Habitat

Garter snakes are widespread throughout North America. The common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), is the only species of snake to be found in Alaska, and is one of the northernmost species of snake in the world, possibly second only to the Crossed Viper, Vipera berus. The genus is so far ranging due to its unparticular diet and adaptability to different biomes and landforms, with varying proximity to water. However, in the western part of North America, these snakes are more water loving than in the eastern portion. Northern populations hibernate in larger groups than southern ones.

Venom

Garters were long thought to be nonvenomous, but recent discoveries have revealed that they do in fact produce a mild neurotoxic venom.[3] Garter snakes cannot kill humans with the small amounts of venom they produce, which is comparatively mild, and they also lack an effective means of delivering it. They do have enlarged teeth in the back of their mouth, but their gums are significantly larger.[4][5] Whereas most venomous snakes have anterior or forward venom glands, the Duvernoy's gland of garters are posterior (to the rear) of the snake's eyes.[6] The mild venom is spread into wounds through a chewing action. The properties of the venom are not well known, but it appears to contain 3FTx, commonly known as three-finger toxin, which is a neurotoxin commonly found in the venom of colubrids and elapids. A bite may result in mild swelling and an itching sensation. There are no known cases of serious injury and extremely few with symptoms of envenomation.

Reproduction
Garter snakes go into brumation before they mate. They stop eating for about two weeks beforehand to clear their stomach of any food that would rot there otherwise. Garter snakes begin mating as soon as they emerge from brumation. During mating season, the males mate with several females. In chillier parts of their range, male common garter snakes awaken from brumation first, giving themselves enough time to prepare to mate with females when they finally appear. Males come out of their dens and, as soon as the females begin coming out, surround them. Female garter snakes produce a sex-specific pheromone that attracts male snakes in droves, sometimes leading to intense male-male competition and the formation of mating balls of up to 25 males per female. After copulation, a female leaves the den/mating area to find food and a place to give birth. Female garter snakes are able to store the male's sperm for years before fertilization. The young are incubated in the lower abdomen, at about the midpoint of the length of the mother's body. Garter snakes are ovoviviparous meaning they give birth to live young. However, this is different than being truly viviparous, which is seen in mammals. Gestation is two to three months in most species. As few as 3 or as many as 80 snakes are born in a single litter. The young are independent upon birth. On record, the greatest number of garter snakes to be born in a single litter is 98.

Diet

A Garter snake eating a frog

Garter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature that they are capable of overpowering: slugs, earthworms, leeches, lizards, amphibians, birds, fish, toads and rodents. When living near the water, they will eat other aquatic animals. The ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus) in particular favors frogs (including tadpoles), readily eating them despite their strong chemical defenses. Food is swallowed whole. Garter snakes often adapt to eating whatever they can find, and whenever, because food can be scarce or abundant. Although they feed mostly upon live animals, they will sometimes eat eggs.

Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis

A garter snake.

Common Garter Snake

The posterior tooth of a garter snake

Eastern Blackneck Garter, Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellatus

Taxonomy

• Eastern Blackneck Garter, Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellatus
•     Longnose Garter Snake, Thamnophis angustirostris (Kennicott, 1860)
•     Aquatic Garter Snake, Thamnophis atratus
•         Santa Cruz Garter Snake, Thamnophis atratus atratus (Kennicott, 1860)
•         Oregon Garter Snake, Thamnophis atratus hydrophilus (Fitch, 1936)
•         Diablo Range Garter Snake, Thamnophis atratus zaxanthus (Boundy, 1999)
•     Shorthead Garter Snake, Thamnophis brachystoma (Cope, 1892)
•     Butler's Garter Snake, Thamnophis butleri (Cope, 1889)
•     Goldenhead Garter Snake, Thamnophis chrysocephalus (Cope, 1885)
•     Western Aquatic Garter Snake, Thamnophis couchii (Kennicott, 1859)
•     Blackneck Garter Snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis
•         Western Blackneck Garter Snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis cyrtopsis (Kennicott, 1860)
•         Eastern Blackneck Garter Snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellatus (Cope, 1880)
•         Tropical Blackneck Garter Snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis collaris (Jan, 1863)
•         Tepalcatepec Valley Garter Snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis postremus (Smith, 1942)
•         Yellow-throated Garter Snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis pulchrilatus (Cope, 1885)
• Checkered Garter Snake, Thamnophis marcianus
•     Western Terrestrial Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans
•         Arizona Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans arizonae (Tanner & Lowe, 1989)
•         Mountain Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans elegans (Baird & Girard, 1853)
•         Mexican Wandering Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans errans (Smith, 1942)
•         Coast Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans terrestris (Fox, 1951)
•         Wandering Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans vagrans (Baird & Girard, 1853)
•         Upper Basin Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans vascotanneri (Tanner & Lowe, 1989)
•         Sierra San Pedro Mártir Garter Snake, Thamnophis elegans hueyi (Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1923)
•     Thamnophis eques
•         Mexican Garter Snake, Thamnophis eques eques (Reuss, 1834)
•         Laguna Totolcingo Garter Snake, Thamnophis eques carmenensis (Conant, 2003)
•         Thamnophis eques cuitzeoensis (Conant, 2003)
•         Thamnophis eques diluvialis (Conant, 2003)
•         Thamnophis eques insperatus (Conant, 2003)
•         Northern Mexican Garter Snake, Thamnophis eques megalops (Kennicott, 1860)
•         Thamnophis eques obscurus (Conant, 2003)
•         Thamnophis eques patzcuaroensis (Conant, 2003)
•         Thamnophis eques scotti (Conant, 2003)
•         Thamnophis eques virgatenuis (Conant, 1963)
• Eastern Plains Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix radix, a disputed subspecies of Thamnophis radix.
•     Montane Garter Snake, Thamnophis exsul (Rossman, 1969)
•     Highland Garter Snake, Thamnophis fulvus (Bocourt, 1893)
•     Giant Garter Snake, Thamnophis gigas (Fitch, 1940)
•     Godman's Garter Snake, Thamnophis godmani (Günther, 1894)
•     Two-striped Garter Snake, Thamnophis hammondii (Kennicott, 1860)
•     Checkered Garter Snake, Thamnophis marcianus (Baird & Girard, 1853)
•     Blackbelly Garter Snake, Thamnophis melanogaster
•         Gray Blackbelly Garter Snake, Thamnophis melanogaster canescens (Smith, 1942)
•         Chihuahuan Blackbelly Garter Snake, Thamnophis melanogaster chihuahuanensis (Tanner, 1959)
•         Lined Blackbelly Garter Snake, Thamnophis melanogaster linearis (Smith, Nixon & Smith, 1950)
•         Mexican Blackbelly Garter Snake, Thamnophis melanogaster melanogaster (Peters, 1864)
• Redstripe Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus rubrilineatus
•     Tamaulipan Montane Garter Snake, Thamnophis mendax (Walker, 1955)
•     Northwestern Garter Snake, Thamnophis ordinoides (Baird & Girard, 1852)
•     Western Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus
•         Chiapas Highland Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus alpinus (Rossman, 1963)
•         Arid Land Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus diabolicus (Rossman, 1963)
•         Gulf Coast Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus orarius (Rossman, 1963)
•         Western Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus proximus (Say, 1823)
•         Redstripe Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus rubrilineatus (Rossman, 1963)
•         Mexican Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis proximus rutiloris (Cope, 1885)
•     Plains Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix (Baird & Girard, 1853)
•     Rossman's Garter Snake, Thamnophis rossmani (Conant, 2000)
•     Narrowhead Garter Snake, Thamnophis rufipunctatus
•         Thamnophis rufipunctatus nigronuchalis (Thompson, 1957)
•         Thamnophis rufipunctatus unilabialis (Tanner, 1985)
•         Thamnophis rufipunctatus rufipunctatus (Cope, 1875)
•     Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus
•         Bluestripe Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus nitae (Rossman, 1963)
•         Peninsula Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus sackenii (Kennicott, 1859)
•         Eastern Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus sauritus (Linnaeus, 1766)
•         Northern Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus septentrionalis (Rossman, 1963)
• Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis
•     Longtail Alpine Garter Snake, Thamnophis scalaris (Cope, 1861)
•     Short-tail Alpine Garter Snake, Thamnophis scaliger (Jan, 1863)
•     Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis
•         Texas Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis annectens (Brown, 1950)
•         Texas Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis annectens
•         Red-spotted Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis concinnus (Hallowell, 1852)
•         New Mexico Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis dorsalis (Baird & Girard, 1853)
•         Valley Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi (Fox, 1951)
•         California Red-sided Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis infernalis (Blainville, 1835)
•         Thamnophis sirtalis lowei (Tanner, 1988)
•         Maritime Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis pallidula (Allen, 1899)
•         Red-sided Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis (Say, 1823)
•         Puget Sound Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis pickeringii (Baird & Girard, 1853)
•         Bluestripe Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis similis (Rossman, 1965)
•         Eastern Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
•         Chicago Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis semifasciatus (Cope, 1892)
•         San Francisco Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia (Cope, 1875)
•     Sumichrast's Garter Snake, Thamnophis sumichrasti (Cope, 1866)
•     West Coast Garter Snake, Thamnophis valida
•         Mexican Pacific Lowlands Garter Snake, Thamnophis valida celaeno (Cope, 1860)
•         Thamnophis valida isabellae (Conant, 1953)
•         Thamnophis valida thamnophisoides (Conant, 1961)
•         Thamnophis valida valida (Kennicott, 1860)

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