Puerto Rican Boa

Puerto Rican Boa

 Description:

The Puerto Rican Boa or "culebr" is the largest native species of snake, and one of only three Boidae on the island. It typically grows to a length of 6 or 7 feet, although 12 foot long specimens have been reported. The Boa's color varies from tan to dark brown with 70 to 80 crossbars or spots which are outlined in very dark brown. 

Puerto Rican Boa

 Reproduction:

Pregnant females give birth to about 23-26 live young boas. Young boas have never been kept in captivity because their feeding patterns have never been studied.

Puerto Rican Boa

 Habitat:

The Puerto Rican Boa may be found on the ground or in trees. In some areas of the forest the Boa hangs from branches, vines and rock ledges at the mouths of caves and when bats brush by them or collide with them they capture and eat them.

 Feeding Behavior:

The boa feeds by seizing the prey in its jaws, wrapping several coils around the victim, and then constricting until the prey has suffocated. The prey is then swallowed head first. The feeding habits of the very young are unknown.

Since the karst region in which the Puerto Rican boa lives usually has many caves, the boa has the opportunity to feed on bats. It was previously unknown how the boa managed to capture the bats in flight. Observations revealed that boas hang at the opening of the cave, waiting until bats fly out of it. Then they grab a bat with their jaws before killing it via constriction.

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Acanthophis hawkei (Barkly Tableland Death Adder)

Acanthophis is a genus of elapid snakes. Commonly called death adders, they are native to Australia, New Guinea and nearby islands, and are among the most venomous snakes in the world. The name of the genus derives from the Ancient Greek acanthos/ἄκανθος "spine" and ophis/ὄφις "snake", referring to the spine on the death adder's tail.

Seven species are listed by ITIS,[1] though it remains unclear how many species this genus includes, with figures ranging from 4 to 15 species being quoted

Description

Death adders are very viper-like in appearance, having a short, robust body, triangular shaped heads and small subocular scales. They also have vertical pupils and many small scales on the top of the head. Their fangs are also longer and more mobile than for most other elapids, although still far from the size seen in some of the true vipers. Despite their name and appearance, they are not vipers at all. This is a case of convergent evolution.

They normally take 2–3 years to reach adult size. Females are generally slightly larger than the males. They can also be easily distinguished from other Australian snakes because of a small, worm like lure on the end of their tail, which is used to attract prey. Most have large bands around their bodies, though the color itself is variable, depending on their locality. Colors are usually black, grey or red and yellow, but also include brown and greenish-grey

Hunting

Unlike most snakes, death adders do not actively hunt, but rather lie in ambush and draw their prey to them. When hungry, death adders bury themselves amongst the substrate. This may be leaf litter, soil or sand, depending on their environment. The only part of themselves they expose are their head and their tail, both generally very well camouflaged. The end of the tail is used for caudal luring and when wiggled is easily mistaken for a grub or worm. An unsuspecting bird or mammal will eventually notice the 'easy lunch' and attempt to seize it. Only then will the death adder move, lashing out with the quickest strike of any snake in the world.[2] A death adder can go from a strike position, to strike and envenoming their prey, and back to strike position again, in less than 0.15 of a second.

Venom

Death adders can inject on average 40–100 mg of highly toxic venom with a bite. The LD50 of the venom was reported as 0.4–0.5 mg/kg subcutaneous and it is completely neurotoxic, containing neither haemotoxins nor myotoxins, unlike most venomous snakes.

A bite from a death adder can cause paralysis which seems minor at first but can cause death from a complete respiratory shutdown in six hours. Symptoms of envenomation can be reversed through the use of death adder antivenom, or using anticholinesterases, which break the synaptic blockade by making acetylcholine more available to the parasympathetic nervous system, thus mitigating the effects of the venom.

Before antivenom was introduced, it is reported that about 50% of death adder bites were fatal. Deaths are much rarer nowadays as the anti-venom is widely available and the progression of envenomation symptoms is slow.

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Red Spitting Cobra

Description

This relatively medium-sized cobra attains lengths between 0.7 and 1.2 meters (2.3 and 3.9 ft),[1][2] but may grow to a maximum length of around 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) in very rare cases.[2][3] It is often thought of as an attractive species; it is usually bright salmon-red contrasted with a broad black throat band and subocular teardrop markings.[1] However, the colour of this species does have variation, which usually depends on where in Africa a particular specimen is found. For example, specimens from southern Kenya and northern Tanzania have an orange-red colour, with a broad, dark blue or black throat band. Some specimens may have two or three throat bands, but this is uncommon for specimens from East Africa. The ventral side is also reddish in colour, sometimes the throat area may be a creamy white. Specimens from other areas can be yellow, pinkish, pink-grey, pale red or steel grey. Most specimens will have a throat band, but it will fade or even sometimes disappear in larger adults. The true red specimens will become reddish-brown in colour as they age and grow in size.[2] The body of this snake is slightly depressed, tapered and moderately slender with a medium-length tail. It is slightly compressed dorsoventrally and subcylindrical posteriorly. The head is broad, flattened and slightly distinct from the neck. The canthus is distinct and the snout is rounded. The eyes are medium to large in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique.

Scalation

Dorsal scales on the midbody are in 21–27, ventrals are in 197–228, and subcaudals are in 61–72 rows, subscales are paired, and the anal scale is single. There are seven upper labials, one upper labial enters the eye; two preoculars, three postoculars, and the lower labials are usually eight in number (range 7-9).

Distribution and habitat

The red spitting cobra is mainly found in East Africa, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia, southern Egypt, northern and eastern Ethiopia, and northern Tanzania and northern Sudan. It is also widespread in the dry country of eastern and northern Kenya. It primarily inhabits dry savanna and semidesert areas of East Africa up to an elevation of about 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) above sea level. They can usually be found near water holes.

Behavior

Red spitting cobras are terrestrial, fast and alert snakes. Adults specimens of this species are nocturnal, while juveniles are more active during the day. Adults like to hide in termite mounds, old logs, holes, brush piles or any other ground cover during the day.[3] They are also known to be cannibalistic; this could be the reason juveniles and smaller specimens are diurnal while adults are nocturnal.[2]

When threatened, this cobra rears up and displays a typical cobra hood. It may also hiss loudly. If the intruder does not retreat, it may sprays jets of venom to the face of the intruder. Venom that gets into the eyes can cause burning pain and blindness. Even so, this snake seldom causes fatalities in humans.

Diet

This species has a wide range of prey, but they prefer amphibians such as toads and frogs, if and when they are available. However, they will prey on rodents, birds[1] and probably others snakes. They are known to raid chicken runs in the region.

Reproduction

The red spitting cobra is oviparous. The female will lay six to 15 eggs.

Venom

The venom of this species, like most spitting cobras, contains a mixture of neurotoxins and cytotoxins. Bite symptoms include slight pain around the wound and numbness of lips and tongue. Although it rarely causes human fatalities, survivors are usually disfigured.[1] The murine IP LD50 value for this snake is 2 mg/kg.[4]

In September 2011, a snake keeper from the Eastern Cape in South Africa died shortly after a red spitting cobra sprayed venom into his face whilst he and a friend were photographing the snake. Some of the venom was believed to have entered his nasal passages and led to anaphylactic shock. His being asthmatic is believed to have contributed to his fatal reaction.

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Farancia (Mud Snake)

Farancia is a genus of colubrid snakes. It consists of two species, one commonly referred to as the rainbow snake and the other commonly referred to as the mud snake. They are native to the eastern half of the United States.

Description

Farancia species can grow to a length of 30-54 inches. They are usually uniform dark brown or black with a brightly colored underside that is red or orange. Rainbow snakes exhibit red striping down their back.

Behaviour
The snakes of this genus are typically semi-aquatic. Living in the muddy edges of slow moving, permanent water sources. Their diet consists primarily of amphiumas, eels, and sirens. Breeding occurs in early spring, and eggs are laid in a burrow near the water in early summer. The clutch incubates between 8–12 weeks, and hatches in mid-autumn.

Species

    Farancia abacura - Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky.
        Eastern Mud Snake, Farancia abacura abacura (Holbrook, 1836)
        Western Mud Snake, Farancia abacura reinwardtii (Schlegel, 1837)
    Farancia erytrogramma - Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North and South Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland.
        Rainbow Snake, Farancia erytrogramma erytrogramma (Palisot de Beauvois, 1802)
        Florida Rainbow Snake, Farancia erytrogramma seminola (Neill, 1964)

Geographic range

The mud snake is found primarily in the southeastern United States, in the states of Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky.


Cultural Significance

The mud snake is one of a few animals which may be the origin of the hoop snake myth. J.D. Wilson Writes:
“     Mud snakes are sometimes known as “hoop snakes” because of the myth that they will bite their own tail and roll after people.[1]     ”

The hoop snake myth has also been attributed to the Coachwhip snake.

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Most Venomous Snakes in the World

 1.Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus): It is one of the most venomous and deadliest snakes in the world. There are three main sub-species of Taipan such as Papuan Taipan (Oxyuranus s. canni), Western or Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus Microlepidotus) or (Fierce Snake) and Common or Coastal Taipan (Oxyuranus Scutellatus). Taipans are found in Australia and New Guinea. Fierce snake or Inland Taipan is more toxic as compared to Papuan Taipan and Coastal Taipan. Inland Taipan is olive or brown in appearance, with uniformly black head or black marking on the head. Its habitat is grasslands and dry plains. Common or Coastal Taipan is dark or light brown in color with a paler shade on the sides and underside and lightly keeled scales. It is about 6 ft in length. It is found in the open woodlands and forests.

 2. Krait: This highly poisonous snake is found in Asia. It appears black or bluish-black in color with a white narrow cross-bands and a narrow head. Its average length is about 90cms. It is more active at night than during the day. It is 15 times more deadly than the common cobra. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin, which causes the respiratory failure.
 
3. King cobra: It is world's largest venomous snake. Its average length is about 3.5 meters and it can be maximum 5.5 meters long. It appears uniformly brown, olive or green in color with black cross-bands. King cobra is commonly found in Southern China, Thailand, Philippines, South India and Malaysia Peninsula. Its venom is a neurotoxin type.
 
4. Russell's viper: Russell's viper is more commonly found in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysian Peninsula, Southern China, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and surrounding islands. It has a light brown body with three rows of black or brown splotches having white or yellow border. Its average length is about 1 meter. It is responsible for relatively more human deaths than any other types of venomous snake. While attacking, it coils tightly, hisses and strikes with such a high speed that its victim gets little chance to escape. Its venom is of hemotoxin type, which is a powerful coagulant, causing damage to blood cells and tissues.
  
5. Black Mamba: It is Africa's most feared venomous snake. It is found in Africa's open woodlands and African savannas. It is highly toxic and notoriously aggressive. Its venom is a powerful neurotoxin. It appears uniformly black or brown. Its average length is about 4.3 meters. Its mouth has a black internal lining. It is known as world's fastest land snake with the top speed of 16-19 km/hr.

 6.Tiger snake: It is olive or dark brown in color with olive or yellowish belly and cross-bands. Its subspecies are found in Victoria and Tasmania and it is uniformly black. Its average length is about 1.2 to 1.8 meters. It is one of the most venomous snakes found in Australia. It is also found in New Guinea, Tasmania and Bass Strait Islands. Its venom is a potent neurotoxin that affects the central nervous system. It produces venom in high quantities, with an average yield of about 35 mg to 180 mg.
  
7. Western Brown Snake (Pseudonaja nuchalis): It is found in the grasslands, forests, deserts and gravelly plains. It is a native of Australia. It has a narrow black head and black neck. It may be black or light brown in color with narrow dark crossbars or a series of lighter bands around the body. It is about 1.5 meters in length. Its venom is neurotoxic.

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Rough Scaled Bush Viper (Atheris hispida)

Atheris hispida is a venomous viper species found in Central Africa. Known for its extremely keeled scales that give it an almost bristly appearance.[3] No subspecies are currently recognized.

 Description

The males of this species grow to maximum length of 73 cm (body 58 cm, tail 15 cm). Females grow to a maximum of 58 cm. The males are surprisingly long and slender compared to the females.

The head has a short snout, more so in males than in females. The eyes are large and surrounded by 9-16 circumorbital scales. Orbits separated by 7-9 scales. The nostril is like a slit and separated from the eye by two scales. The eye and the supralabials are separated by a single row of scales. The supralabials number 7-10, of which the fourth is enlarged.[3] The body is covered with elongated, heavily keeled scales that give this species a "shaggy", almost bristly appearance. The scales around the head and neck are the longest, decreasing posteriorly. Midbody, the dorsal scales number 15-19. There are 149-166 ventral scales and 35-64 subcaudals. The anal scale is single.

Common names

Rough-scaled bush viper, spiny bush viper, hairy bush viper, rough-scaled tree viper,African hairy bush viper, hairy viper.

The common name "hairy bush viper" should, however, be avoided for this species, as it will likely be confused with the recently described species, A. hirsuta, the specific name for which means "hairy".

Geographic range

Central Africa: DR Congo, south-west Uganda, west Kenya. The type locality given is "Lutunguru, Kivu" (DR Congo).[1]

More specifically, Spawls & Branch (1995) describe the distribution as isolated populations in Kivu and Orientale Provinces in DR Congo, southeastern Ruwenzori in Uganda and the Kakamega Forest in western Kenya.

Behavior

Capable of climbing reeds and stalks, this species is often found basking on top of flowers and terminal leaves. Mostly nocturnal.

 Feeding

Feeds on mammals, frogs, lizards and sometimes birds. Sometimes hunts for mammalian prey on the ground.

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Rosy boa

The Rosy Boa (Lichanura trivirgata) is a snake of the Boidae family, one of only two members of that family native to the United States. The other is the Rubber Boa (C. bottae). Rosy Boas are native to the American Southwest, and Baja and Sonora Mexico.

Description

These small attractive snakes attain a length of 39 in (1 m) (though some specimens from the coast of California reach 4 feet) and a large adult has a body width about the diameter of a golf ball. Coloration in Rosy Boas is highly variable. The common name is derived from the rosy or salmon coloration that is common on the belly of Rosy Boas originating from coastal southern California and Baja Mexico. Most Boas do not have this ventral coloration but instead have a series of dark to orange spots on a light-colored background.

Almost all Rosy Boas have at least some trace of three longitudinal stripes, one down the center of the back, and two on the lower sides. The appearance of these stripes varies widely from extremely straight and having high contrast with the interspaces to extremely broken with almost no contrast with the interspaces. Stripe colors can be orange, maroon, rust, brown, or black. The interspaces range from shades of light to dark gray, yellow, or tan.

Geographic range

The Rosy Boa is found in the southwestern United States in the states of California and Arizona, and northwestern Mexico in the states of Baja California and Sonora. In California, the Rosy Boa ranges throughout the Colorado and Mojave deserts and also occupies the coastal areas of Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Diego counties. In Arizona, the Rosy Boa occupies the Mojave desert and the western areas of the Sonoran desert. It is absent from the eastern and northern halves of the state. In Sonora, the Rosy Boa ranges from the border with the United States south throughout the Sonoran Desert to at least as far south as Ortiz. In Baja California, the Rosy Boa is almost ubiquitous ranging throughout the entire peninsula except in areas of extremely dry or rockless desert.

Behavior

Rosy Boas spend most of their lives concealed beneath rocks and in crevices to escape the elements and natural predators. Granite outcroppings are the most common geologic association inhabited by the Rosy Boa. Less often they are found in association with volcanic or other rock types. Only in rare places do Rosy Boas inhabit rockless environments. In areas with few rocks Rosy Boas will use rodent burrows for concealment.


Rosy Boas' activity season follows local weather patterns; however, they are generally dormant during the winter, and active during the spring, summer and fall. Like all snakes, they are dependent on external temperatures to promote such normal bodily functions as digestion and gestation. Throughout most of their range the winter is too cold for these functions and the Rosy Boas go into a dormant state called brumation. The spring is breeding season for Rosy Boas, resulting in their highest rate of activity. Most Rosy Boas are encountered in spring as they leave the security of their rock piles and crevices to seek mates. Another reason Rosy Boas may be active on the surface of the ground is to find prey or new territory.


The surface activity of Rosy Boas can take place during any hour of the day, but during hot weather they are primarily nocturnal. In the spring, they are often abroad in the afternoon and early evening. In the late spring and summer, this activity period switches to from dusk to late into the night. Because most populations of Rosy Boas live in exceedingly dry habitats, their activity is often highly moisture dependent. During dry periods they remain deep underground to assist in remaining hydrated. Recent rainfall often results in a flurry of surface activity.

These snakes forage mainly for small mammals but have occasionally been known to take other prey items such as birds and lizards. Pack rats, baby rabbits, deer mice, and kangaroo rats make up a large portion of their diet. Rosy Boas are one of the slowest-moving species of snake in the world. They are unable to pursue prey and must either wait in ambush or stalk their meals. When a meal is within reach, usually a few inches, a Rosy Boa will strike with surprising speed and accuracy. Prey is secured with tiny rows of needle-sharp teeth, then suffocated through constriction.

Rosy Boas are extremely docile when encountered by humans. When disturbed they usually roll into a compact ball with the head in the center.[1] The species is not prone to bite in defense, and when human bites have occurred they have usually been the result of a feeding response with a captive animal. All Rosy Boa bites are nonvenomous. Their extreme docility and their attractive coloration have made Rosy Boas very popular with herpetoculturists.

Reproduction
Rosy Boas bear live young, about six in a brood. The newborns are about 30 cm (12 in.) in length.

In captivity
Their generally docile temperament, ease of care, and small size makes the Rosy Boa an ideal choice for a pet snake (or first boa). They are frequently captive bred, and readily feed on commercially available mice. Many color variations are available, including albinos as well as the many different subspecies that come in dozens of variations. With other species, such as corn snakes and ball pythons, dominating the majority of the market, the popularity of Rosy Boas hasn't been as high as the other more popular species.

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Sonora Semiannulata(GROUND SNAKE)

The common ground snake (Sonora semiannulata) is a species of small, harmless colubrid snake. It is sometimes referred to as the Western ground snake or variable ground snake as its patterning and coloration can vary widely, even within the same geographic region.

Description

Ground snakes can grow from 10 to 15 inches in length. Their colors and patterns can vary widely. They can be brown, red, or orange, with black banding, orange or brown striping, or be solid-colored. Their underside is typically white or grey. They have fairly smooth scales, a small head, and eyes with round pupils.

Habitat

Their preferred habitat is dry, rocky areas with loose soil.

Behavior

Ground snakes are typically nocturnal and secretive, but they are common throughout their range. They are often found on roadsides, or in dry drainage ditches at night, foraging for food.

Diet

Their diet consists primarily of invertebrates, such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes, crickets, and insect larvae.

Reproduction

They are oviparous, breeding and laying eggs through the summer months.

Taxonomy

Sonora semiannulata was once broken up into five separate subspecies, based on the vast differences in color and patterning that the species displays, but recent research has shown that the various colors and patterns of ground snake interbreed indiscriminantly, making distinction between them impossible and thus not warranting subspecies status, though some sources still refer to them - using geography as a basis rather than morphology.

ground snake

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Beauty Rat Snake(elaphe taeniura)

The Beauty Rat Snake (Orthriophis taeniurus) is a species of long, slender, semi-arboreal snakes that are native to Asia. Their average length is about 5-7 feet, with an unofficial record of slightly under 10 ft. In captivity some calm down to be nice pets, but others have been known to be quite temperamental even many years after capture.

elaphe taeniura bleue

Coloration

Ground color of yellowish-brown to olive. The tops of the head and neck are unicolor. The markings on the back almost always consist of two pairs of black rounded spots, which join together. From each eye there is a dark stripe, which extends to the corners of the mouth. The upper labials are yellowish-white. In addition, this subspecies has a much wider head and a longer tail.

Breeding

The temperature for hibernation is around 18-20*C. Mating usually results about a month after hibernation period. Hatchlings are about 30-45 cm in length and shed after about 14 days. Following shedding, pinkie mice should be fed immediately. They grow quickly and attain a length of 135 cm after only 14 months. They are capable of reproduction after only 18 months

Taiwanese Beauty Snake (Orthriophis taeniura friesi)

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California Kingsnake

The California Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula californiae) is a non-venomous colubrid snake found in the western United States and northern Mexico. It is a relatively small subspecies of the Common Kingsnake[1] and is naturally found in a wide variety of habitats. One of the most popular snakes in captivity, the California Kingsnake can vary widely in appearance due to numerous naturally occurring and captive-developed color morphs.

California Kingsnake

Geographic range
The California Kingsnake is found in most of California and Arizona, including the highest mountain ranges, as well as southern portions of Nevada, Utah, and Oregon, northwestern New Mexico, extreme southwestern Colorado, and northwestern Mexico. In Arizona, they intergrade with the Desert Kingsnake or the Mexican Black Kingsnake.

Behavior

The Californian Kingsnake is generally diurnal, however they become more nocturnal if the weather is too hot.[1][2] In the winter, they will usually go deep underground and enter a hibernation-like state called brumation, which is characterized by a slowed metabolism and reduced activity.

California Kingsnakes are predators, feeding on almost any vertebrate they can overpower. Common food items include rodents, other reptiles, birds, and amphibians. All kingsnakes are non-venomous, but are powerful constrictors and generally kill their prey through suffocation. The "king" in their name refers to their propensity to hunt and consume other snakes, including venomous rattlesnakes. California Kingsnakes are naturally impervious to the venom of rattlesnakes but are not totally immune. They feed on rattlesnakes when the opportunity arises and a rattlesnake will make an easy meal for a hungry kingsnake, but do not seek out rattlesnakes specifically, nor consume them on a regular basis. Rattlesnakes and California Kingsnakes are not enemies, and may be found sharing the same piece of cover (i.e. plywood, tin, rocks, crevice, etc.) in the wild while completely ignoring the presence of the other.[3]

When disturbed, California Kingsnakes will often coil their bodies to hide their heads, hiss, and rattle their tails, which, if done in dry vegetation, can produce a sound somewhat resembling that of a rattlesnake's rattle. They are considered harmless to humans, but if handled it is common for this species to bite as well as excrete musk and fecal contents from their cloaca, but this latter habit is usually restricted to the females.[3]

Kingsnakes usually shed four to six times per year at which point they go "opaque", meaning the snake's skin becomes dull and its eyes will turn a milky color. Like all snakes, they usually shed in one long piece, which includes their eye scales. Juvenile snakes will shed more frequently, up to once a month, than adult snakes because of their faster rate of growth. Prior to shedding, they will generally seek out humid microclimates in their habitat.

Reproduction

The California Kingsnake is an oviparous internal fertilization animal, meaning it lays eggs as opposed to giving live birth like some other snakes. Courtship for this kingsnake begins in the spring and involves the males competing for available females. Eggs are laid between May and August which is generally 42–63 days after mating;[1] in preparation the female will have chosen a suitable location. The typical clutch size is five to twelve eggs with an average of nine,[1] though clutches of 20 or more eggs are known. The hatchlings usually emerge another 40–65 days later, and are approximately eight to thirteen inches in length

In captivity
The California Kingsnake is one of the most popular pet reptiles, due to its ease of care, attractive appearance, and ability to become tame. It is also the most widely bred, and as such most available, subspecies of the Common Kingsnake.[1] They are kept in glass, plastic or wooden enclosures with suitable equipment to provide the right temperature and humidity. Regardless of the type of cage, its security is of utmost importance to prevent the reptile from escaping. Young individuals do best in smaller cages, and can be moved to larger environments as they age, as enclosures that are too large can cause unnecessary stress. Common substrates suitable for use with California Kingsnakes are aspen shavings, newspaper, and paper towels. Cedar and pine shavings are toxic to reptiles and should not be used. When a kingsnake is preparing to shed, it needs a humid environment to help shed the old skin.[1] A box containing damp moss or moistened paper towels is often provided to facilitate this process.

Temperatures should be kept at around 80–85°F (27–29°C),[1] with the cool end of this range at one end of the enclosure and the warm at the other end. This provides a thermal gradient within which the snake can self-regulate its own body temperature. Temperatures should not be allowed to go above 90°F as this can cause severe health problems. Room temperature at night is fine; most wild snakes can take overnight temperatures as low as the high 40s. Humidity should be kept low (below 40%), and one suitable water bowl can provide this.[4]

Snakes should not be handled extensively for the following 48 hours after eating, which can cause the snake to regurgitate its prey. When handling a kingsnake, the entire body of the animal should be supported and not tightly restrained. Young snakes and any individuals not accustomed to being handled may bite and smear cloacal contents on the handler, though most kingsnakes learn to tolerate being handled by humans relatively quickly.

The King Snake is a non-venomous species that loops around, constricts and then squeezes the prey until it suffocates. The snake must not be fed frozen food. The food should be thawed to room temperature and then if desired, warmed slightly in the hands. Frozen prey will cause frostbite, which can be deadly for a snake.

Due to their cannibalistic nature, no more than one California Kingsnake should be kept in a single enclosure at once. Snakes in shared enclosures may attempt to eat each other, resulting in the death or injury of one or both snakes. The only time two snakes should be in one enclosure is if breeding efforts are ongoing.

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Chrysopelea ornata:-flying snake or golden tree snake

Chrysopelea ornata is a colubrid snake found in South and Southeast Asia. It is, along with the other species in its genus Chrysopelea, very unusual in that it is capable of a type of gliding flight. It is also rear-fanged. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, including the typical form described here. The snake's striking looks and capability of gliding make it a popular choice for captivity.

Description

Chrysopelea ornata is usually green in color, with black cross-hatching and yellow or gold colored accents. The body, though slender, is far less so than in other tree snakes. It has a flattened head with constricted neck, a blunt nose and large eyes with round pupils.[1]

The lateral, sharp and pronounced keeled condition of the ventrals in association with the normal, not enlarged, vertebral row of scales distinguish this snake. The snakes rarely exceed 40 inches in length, the smallest being measured at 115mm[4] and the largest being 1,360 mm (4 ft 51/2 in) long. The tail is about one-fourth of the total length.[1]

Chrysopelea ornata has two major colour forms, which are largely determined by geographic locality, and their descriptions are given below:[1]

    In Sri Lanka and southern extent of its Indian range, the snake is primarily greenish yellow or pale green. Each scale has a black mesial streak or spot, and is more or less edged with black. The snake also has dark crossbars at intervals. A series of large, flower-shaped, reddish or orange vertebral spots may be present or absent. Ventrals greenish, outside the keel edged with black or spotted. Head black with vellow crossbars and spots. The flower-shaped spots are commoner in Sri Lanka than in south India.

    The second colour variety occurs Southeast Asia lacks the reddish vertebral spots, and has less prominent black crossbars.

Venom
This species is considered mildly venomous, with no confirmed cases of medically significant envenomation.

Red-spotted form of Chrysopelea ornata from North Bengal, India

Geographic range

India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, western Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China (Hong Kong, Hainan, Yunnan), Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi), and the Philippines.

In India Chrysopelea ornata ranges from the Western Ghats, up to the Dangs, Katernia Ghat in Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar, northern West Bengal[1] eastwards to Arunachal Pradesh.[6] It is also found in the forests of the Andaman islands.[1]

Chrysopelea ornata climbing up prior to launching itself into the air

Behaviour

Chrysopelea ornata is diurnal and arboreal. The snake's gliding ability, while not as impressive as that of the paradise flying snake (C. paradisi), still makes it capable of moving from tree to tree with relative ease. These snakes are excellent climbers, being able move across even the smallest of branches and even straight up trees with few branches by using the edges of rough bark. They are frequently seen moving up a coconut palm, or up vertical rock faces in graceful curves, gripping the somewhat uneven surfaces with their scales. They tend to be nervous, fast-moving snakes, and will attempt to flee if disturbed, but will not generally hesitate to bite if handled. They are mildly venomous, but the venom is not considered to be dangerous to humans.[4] It is intended to assist in subduing fast moving, arboreal prey. C. ornata takes small arboreal prey, such as lizards, bats and small rodents.[7] It might also feed on bird eggs and insects. Also it is reported to take snakes occasionally, and to avoid frogs, though frogs are also reported being eaten. The snake stalks or pursues the prey and seizes it by the neck, which is duly crushed in its strong jaws.[4]

Flight
Chrysopelea ornata, like others of its genus, glides or parachutes. This is presumably done to cover distances faster, to escape predators, to catch prey, or to move around in forests. Flying snakes usually parachute from tree to tree, but sometimes launch themselves from trees onto the ground. They have been known to cross as much as 100m.[5]

It does this by climbing up to a height, which it does easily by virtue of its keeled belly scales, and then launching itself into mid-air. The snake contracts its ventral surface inwards to form a U-shaped concave depression along the entire length of their bodies, holding the outer edges of the ventral scales rigid. This concave surface acts like a parachute, and increases air resistance, allowing the snake to glide forward with the thrust of its launch. The snake undulates through the air, in a swimming-like motion. It holds the tail rigidly upwards, and by twisting the tail from side to side, it attains balance. This motion allows it to propel forward, landing clumsily at the end of its flight.[5]

Head of C. ornata with brilliantly coloured tongue exposed

Reproduction
Breeding habits are little known. The snake is oviparous[6] and six to twelve elongated eggs[1] are laid. Gravid females have been obtained in May and June and hatchlings in June. In Bangkok, according to Smith, mating takes place in June. Hatchlings measure 114–152 mm (4 1/2 to 6 in) in length, while the smallest gravid female recorded was 1,093 mm (3 ft 7 in) in length.[1]

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White Lipped Python(Leiopython)

Leiopython, formerly a monotypic genus, now comprises six species,[4] created for the non-venomous python species, L. albertisii, found in New Guinea. No subspecies are currently recognized.[5] It was first described as an intermediate genus between Liasis and Nardoa.[6] The species was named in honor of Luigi D'Albertis.


Description

Female Adults of the Northern White-Lipped Python (Leiopython albertisii) grow to an average of about 213 cm in length (6–7 ft), whereas the Southern White-Lipped Python (Leiopython hoserae) can reach up to 300 cm (10 ft) in length. They are patternless, except that the Northern White-Lipped Python has some light markings on their postoculars[3] absent in the Southern White-Lipped Python.[4] The snout is triangular and the head is distinct from the neck. The dorsum of the head is shiny black, the upper and lower labial scales are white with black markings on the anterior edge of the scales. Body color is either brownish-violet fading to yellowish ventrally (Leiopython albertisii) or blackish-blue fading to gray (Leiopython hoserae). These pythons also regurgitate fur balls, also known as "Casting." This behavior is rarely seen, but 2–3 days after feeding the results are seen. When it is witnessed owners of White lipped pythons often think their snake is regurgitating its food.


Geographic range

Found in most of New Guinea (below 1200 m), including the islands of Salawati and Biak, Normanby, Mussau and Emirau,[4] as well as a few islands in the Torres Strait. The type locality given is "Kapaor in Nova Guinea boreali occidentali ... et prope Andai..." also stated "... un esemplare a Kapaor fra i Papua Onin..." and "... un secondo esamplare ad Andai presso Dorei..." (Kapoar, Onin Peninsula and Andai, near Dorei, Irian Jaya, Indonesia).[1]

Some doubt can be cast on its occurrence on Normanby, as McDowell (1975)[8] had erroneously assigned Bara Bara to this Island, rather than to the mainland of Papua New Guinea[4] in Milne Bay Province as stated by Boulenger (1898)[9] and Koopman (1982).

Habitat

Associated with rain forests, cutover clearings and swamps. Usually found near water, into which they may quickly retreat if disturbed. Often hide under dead leaves on forest floor.[3]

Feeding

The diet includes a range of birds and mammals that are small to medium in size.[3] Neonates and young semi-adults often feed on lizards.

Reproduction
Oviparous, with females laying about a dozen eggs. The eggs stick together in a compact pile and the females coils around them. The hatchlings emerge after about two months of incubation and are about 38 cm (15 inches) in length.[3]

 

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Baird's Rat Snake

Pantherophis bairdi is a harmless colubrid species found in the United States in the Big Bend region of western Texas, as well as in northern Mexico in Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. The species was named in honor of the American zoologist Spencer Fullerton Baird. No subspecies are currently recognized.


Description

Adults can reach 25 to 55 inches in length. The color pattern consists of an orange-yellow to bright yellow, or a darker salmon ground color, overlaid with four stripes that run from the neck to the tail. The belly is generally gray to yellow, darkening near the tail.

The primary diet consists of rodents, although they will also prey on birds. Juveniles often eat lizards. They are typically more pleasantly tempered than other rat snake species. They are oviparous, laying a clutch of up to 10 eggs that takes about 3 months to hatch. Prefers semi-arid, rocky habitats.

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Interesting facts about snakes...

• Snake’s scales are made up of something called Keratin, which is the same thing that our fingernails are made from.
• Mother Pythons will coil themselves around their eggs and make their bodies shiver in order to heat herself up and keep her eggs warm until they hatch. 
• The biggest snake is the Reticulated Python. It can grow up to 10.05 meters or 33 feet long! 
• The thickest snake is the Anaconda. The biggest one found measured 111 centimeters or 44 inches around. That's huge! 
• The Thread snake is the smallest snake. It is only about 10 centimeters (4 inches long) and the size of a toothpick. 
• Vine snakes are remarkable because they appear to have binocular vision. 
• Many Zookeepers believe that Cobras are faster learners than other snakes. They are able to tell the difference between their trainer and strangers.
• The ancient Greek god, Asklepios, was thought to be a healer of the sick and injured. People would take an offering to the temple and wait for Asklepios to, either come to them in their dreams or send his servants, the snake, to help them. One touch of the forked tongue was all they thought they needed to heal them. The healing snake was the Aesculapian snake. The Romans would bring this snake into their temples rather than the Greek healers.  To this day the Aesculapian snake forms part of the symbols representing physicians and veterinarians. 
• This would be funny to watch! The Hognose, Grass snake and the Spitting Cobra will fake death when feeling threatened. They flip into their backs, open their mouths, and let their tongue flop out. And they will let out some smelly stuff from their anal gland. Nobody would want to eat it after that!
• A reticulated python, named Colossus, was the largest snake that ever lived in a zoo. She lived at the Pittsburgh Zoo in Pennsylvania. Clifford Pope, the author of a book entitled “The Giant Snakes” reported that she was 22 feet long when she was captured in what is now Thailand in 1949. Eight years later she grew to 8.69 m (28 ½ feet) long. Her body was 69 cm (37 ½ inches) around and her weight was around 145 kg (320 pounds).
•  Snakes are more closely related to lizards than to other reptiles, and probably evolved from a single group of lizards. Curiously, they probably did not evolve from the group of legless lizards.
•  In ancient Greece, the sick and injured sought the aid of the god of healing and medicine, Asklepios. They took an offering to the temple and waited for the god to come to them in their dreams, or to send his sacred servants, the snakes. Ancient writings tell of the snakes healing with a touch of the tongue. The snake in question was the Aesculapian snake. The Romans chose to import this snake to their own temples, rather than to bring in Greek healers. The snake today forms part of the symbol of physicians and veterinarians (the snake is wrapped around Asklepios' staff), linking snakes to millennia of healing and medical practice.
• The hognosed snake (Heterodon sp.), grass snake and the spitting cobra can feign death by flipping on to their backs when threatened. They open their mouths, allow their tongues to loll and can empty a foul smelling substance from their anal glands, making them highly unappetizing to any potential predator.
•  Many snakes, such as vipers, boas and pythons have temperature-sensing organs on their heads. These heat pits are sensitive to changes in temperature of as little as 0.002 degrees Celsius, and effectively allow the snake to navigate and hunt in the dark.
•  Snakes can have over 300 pairs of ribs.
•  Snakes turn “blue” before a shed. This opaque change to the skin is actually due to the presence of a lymph-like layer of fluid between the old and new skins, prior to the shed of the old skin.
•  Reports of the longest, heaviest and oldest reptiles abound. Many cannot be verified. A reticulated python, shot in Indonesia in 1912, was said to be 32 feet 9 1/2 inches in length. One Burmese python weighed in at over 400 pounds. Although seldom as long as the giant pythons, the green anaconda is a heavier snake. Sir Percy Fawcett is said to have killed an anaconda measuring 62 feet in 1907, in Brazil. Since the early part of the last century, the New York Zoological Society has offered a reward of $50,000 for the capture of a live snake greater than 30 feet in length. The oldest recorded snake is a boa constrictor named Popeye, who died in 1977 at the age of 40 years, 3 months and 14 days.
•  The smallest snake may be the Martinique thread snake (Leptotyphlops bilineatus), which does not grow any bigger than 4 1/4 inches.
•  A snake's internal organs, although superficially different, have basically the same functions as those of a mammal. The difference lies in their arrangement. They are placed one after the other, to accommodate the tube-like body. All snakes have a right lung and associated air sacs that extend most of the way to the vent. In most species, the left lung is considerably shorter, or even missing.
•  The glottis, which is the entry to the trachea (breathing tube), can move to either side, to allow the snake to swallow prey. This is the tube you see when you look at the floor of a snake's mouth. Cartilage around the opening of the tube closes to prevent food from entering the respiratory tract, and produces the classic “hiss” in many snakes.
•  A snake's heart can slide 1 to 1 1/2 times its length from its normal position, to allow the passage of swallowed prey. This is because of the relative mobility of the pericardial sac, which surrounds the heart.
•  Venom glands have evolved independently in several species. Venoms are very complex substances, which may consist of a dozen or more toxic components. These can include substances poisonous to the heart, nerves and DNA as well as enzymes that break down natural tissue barriers, allowing the spread of venom within the body.
•  Spitting cobras can inject venom in their bites, but can also force venom out, under pressure, through tiny channels in their fangs. Raising the front half of its body, the snake can aim venom at the eyes and mucous membranes of its target, over 3 feet away.
•  Snakes have two rows of teeth on the top jaw, one row on the bottom jaw. The teeth, including fangs, in most cases are replaced throughout life.
•  When the tongue is in the mouth, it lies in a sheath beneath the glottis with its tip touching the vomeronasal or Jacobsen‘s organ. This is an organ of smell, so when your snake flicks out his tongue, he is, in fact, “tasting” or smelling the air. The forked design allows the snake to detect on which side the smell is strongest, and so to locate his prey, even in the dark.
•  The Brahminy blind snake are all females. When mature, they lay fertile eggs, and the young are clones of the mother. Although native to Asia, this snake is now found in warm countries all over the world.
•  The Emerald tree boa is born red or yellow, and changes to green after about a year.
•  The rattlesnake's rattle consists of six to 10 layers of scales, which fail to shed and make that distinctive sound when the tail is shaken as a warning. Eventually the older segments will slough as the rattle lengthens.
•  The tail of the Calabar ground boa is blunt, cylindrical and has white scales on the underside, and altogether appears very much like a head. When threatened, the snake coils into a ball, hides its head, leaving the less vulnerable tail exposed to confuse predators.
•  The common egg eater (Dasypeltis scabra) is a highly specialized snake. Although it is not venomous, the markings are sufficiently similar to those of the deadly cobra or viper that a potential predator will think twice before attacking. The egg eater can also expand its jaws to mimic the larger head of the venomous. To consume an egg, the jaws can expand to four or five times the size of the egg. Once engulfed, the egg is pierced by two specialized vertebrae. Other modified bones in the vertebral column stabilize it, prevent its slipping out of the mouth or further into the snake. Yet another set of unique vertebrae crush the egg. Once emptied of its contents, the shell is regurgitated.
•  The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepsis) is brown, gray or olive, but never black. It is a particularly dangerous snake, with a bite that kills 95 to 100 percent of victims. The black mamba may also be the fastest snake, reaching speeds of 10 to 12 miles per hour. Other particularly dangerous snakes include the common krait, Russell's viper (both Asian snakes) and the taipan (Australian). Seven of the 10 most deadly snakes live in Australia.
•  Snakes move by relaxing and contracting muscles lengthwise along the body. Sidewinding is a specialized form of motion that allows a snake to travel with speed and relatively little expenditure of energy along loose desert sand. The snake lifts a loop of its body from the surface, using its head and tail. The loop is moved sideways and then back to the ground. This creates the typical series of unconnected parallel tracks.
•  The paired claw-like structures seen on either side of the vent of a snake such as a ball or royal python, are in fact, remnants of the legs present in the animals from which the modern species has evolved.

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Deadly Black mamba

black mamba

The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is the longest venomous snake in Africa, averaging around 2.5 meters (8.2 ft), and sometimes growing up to 4.3 meters (14 ft). Its name is derived from the black colouration inside the mouth rather than the actual colour of the skin which varies from dull yellowish-green to a gun-metal grey. It is the fastest snake in the world, capable of moving at 4.32 to 5.4 metres per second (16–20 km/h, 10–12 mph).

Description
The black mamba's back skin colour is olive, brownish, gray, or sometimes khaki.[5] The adult snake's length is on average 2.5 meters (8.2 ft),[1] but some specimens have reached lengths of 4.3 to 4.5 meters (14 to 15 ft).[5] Black mambas weigh about 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb).[1] on average. The species is the second longest venomous snake in the world, exceeded in length only by the king cobra.[5] The snake has an average life span of 11 years in the wild.[1]

Habitat
The black mamba has adapted to a variety of climates ranging from savanna, woodlands, rocky slopes, dense forests and even humid swamps.[6] The grassland and savanna woodland/shrubs that extend through central, eastern and southern Africa are the black mamba's typical habitat.[6] The black mamba prefers more arid environments such as light woodland, rocky outcrops, and semi-arid dry bush country.

Behaviour

The black mamba uses its speed to escape threats, not to hunt prey.[1] It is known to be capable of reaching speeds of around 20 kilometers per hour (12 mph), traveling with up to a third of its body raised off the ground.[1] Over long distances the black mamba can travel 11 to 19 kilometers per hour (6.8 to 12 mph), but in short bursts it can reach a speed of 16 to 20 kilometers per hour (9.9 to 12 mph),or even 23 kilometers per hour (14 mph) [8] making it the fastest land snake.[9] It is shy and secretive; it always seeks to escape when a confrontation occurs.[1] If a black mamba is cornered it mimics a cobra by spreading a neck-flap, exposing its black mouth, and hissing.[1] If this endeavor to scare away the attacker fails, the black mamba may strike repeatedly.[1] The black mamba is a diurnal snake. Although its scientific name seems to be indicative of tree climbing, the black mamba is rarely an arboreal snake.[9] These snakes retreat when threatened by predators.

Venom

The venom of the black mamba consists mainly of potent neurotoxins[10]. With a LD50 of 0.25 mg/kg—0.32 mg/kg, the black mamba's venom is virulently toxic.[11] Some of the components of the venom have a much more toxic LD50 value than the venom as a whole, for example α-dendrotoxin (or "Toxin 1") and γ-dendrotoxin (or "Toxin 7") had subcutaneous LD50 values of 0.09 µg and 0.12 µg per gram of white mice, respectively.[12] Although only 10 to 15 mg[13] is deadly to a human adult, its bite delivers about 100–120 mg of venom on average[13], but they can deliver up to 400 mg of venom in a single bite[13]. It is reported that before the antivenom was widely available, the mortality rate from a bite was 100%.[14][15][16][17][1][18] Black mamba bites can potentially kill a human within 20 minutes or less[19][20][13][12] depending on the nature of the bite and the area bitten, but death usually occurs after 30–60 minutes on average, sometimes even taking up to three hours. British wildlife enthusiast Nathan Layton was bitten near Hoedspruit by a juvenile black mamba and died less than 30 minutes after being bitten.[21] The fatality duration and rate depend on various factors, such as the health, size, age, psychological state of the human, the penetration of one or both fangs from the snake, amount of venom injected, location of the bite, and proximity to major blood vessels.[1] The health of the snake and the interval since it last used its venom mechanism is also important. Presently, there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) to treat all black mamba bites from different localities.[18]

If bitten, common symptoms for which to watch are rapid onset of dizziness, coughing or difficulty breathing, and erratic heartbeat.[18] In extreme cases, when the victim has received a large amount of venom, death can result within minutes[1] from respiratory or cardiac arrest.[18] This is especially true if the victim is bitten in the face or chest area, as a black mamba can rear up around one-third of its body from the ground which puts it at about four feet high. When warding off a threat, the black mamba delivers multiple strikes, injecting large amounts of virulently toxic venom with each strike, often landing bites on the body or head, unlike other snakes. Also, the black mamba's venom has been known to cause paralysis.[18] Death is due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.[18]

Many herpetologists, including South African-born herpetologist Austin Stevens, regard the black mamba as one of, if not the most dangerous and feared snakes in the world due to various factors including the toxicity and high yield of its venom, its high level of aggression, its speed, agility, size, and other factors.[22][12] Nevertheless, attacks on humans by black mambas are rare, as the snakes usually avoid confrontation with humans and their occurrence in highly-populated areas is not very common compared with some other species. 
 Toxin

Mamba venom is made up mostly of dendrotoxins (dendrotoxin-k - "Toxin K"[23], dendrotoxin-1 - "Toxin 1"[24], dendrotoxin-3 - "Toxin 3"[25], dendrotoxin-7 - "Toxin 7"[25]), and calciseptine[26]. The dendrotoxins disrupt the exogenous process of muscle contraction by means of the sodium potassium pump. Toxin K is a selective blocker of voltage-gated potassium channels[27], Toxin 1 inhibits the K+ channels at the pre and post-synaptic level in the intestinal smooth muscle. It also inhibits Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels from rat skeletal muscle‚ incorporated into planar bilayers (Kd = 90 nM in 50 mM KCl)[28], Toxin 3 inhibits M4 receptors, while Toxin 7 inhibits M1 receptors.[25] The calciseptine is a 60 amino acid peptide which acts as a smooth muscle relaxant and an inhibitor of cardiac contractions. It blocks K+ induced contraction in aortic smooth muscle and it blocks spontaneous contraction of uterine muscle and portal vein.[29][13] The venom is highly specific and virulently toxic. In an experiment, the death time of a mouse after subcutaneous injection of some toxins studied is around 7 minutes. However, a black mamba venom can kill a mouse after 4.5 minutes.[12]

 Hunting and prey

As stated, the black mamba is diurnal. It is an ambush predator that waits for prey to get close.[8] If the prey attempts to escape, the black mamba will follow up its initial bite with a series of strikes.[8] When hunting, the black mamba has been known to raise a large portion of its body off the ground.[8] The black mamba will release larger prey after biting it, but smaller prey, such as birds or rats, are held onto until the prey's muscles stop moving.[8] They have been known to prey on bushbabies, bats, and small chickens.

black mamba attacking

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