Arizona elegans is a medium-sized colubrid snake commonly referred to as the glossy snake. The genus Arizona has only one officially recognized species, A. elegans, with several subspecies. Some have recommended that A. elegans occidentalis be granted full species status.
Description
The glossy snake and its many subspecies are all similar in appearance to gopher snakes. However, they are smaller than gopher snakes, with narrow, pointed heads, and a variety of skin patterns and colors. They are nonvenomous, nocturnal predators of small mammals and lizards. Most subspecies are ca. 75-130 cm (ca. 30-50 inches) in length and are shades of tan, brown, and gray with spotted patterns on their smooth, glossy skin and a white or cream-colored unmarked ventral surface. Coloration often varies in relation to the color of the soil in a snake's native habitat.
Habitat
Habitat is normally semi-arid grasslands of the southwestern United States, from California in the west to Kansas in the east and as far south as Texas, and northern Mexico.
Reproduction
Glossy snakes are oviparous. They breed in the late spring and early summer and young hatch out in the early fall. Clutches average from 10 to 20 young that are approximately 25 cm long.
BEHAVIOR
This nocturnal ground-dweller is good burrower that spends the majority of its time underground. It hibernates in an underground burrow during the cold months of winter and late fall. When threatened or harassed it often vibrates its tail. It rarely bites when captured.
DIET
The Glossy Snake is a constrictor that feeds on small mammals, lizards, snakes, and birds.
SUBSPECIES FOUND IN AZ:
DESERT GLOSSY SNAKE Arizona elegans eburnata. This subspecies is found in western and southwestern Arizona. It has a shorter tail relative to body size than the Painted Desert Glossy Snake.
ARIZONA GLOSSY SNAKE Arizona elegans noctivaga. This subspecies is found across most of south-central Arizona. It has a shorter tail relative to body size than the Painted Desert Glossy Snake.
PAINTED DESERT GLOSSY SNAKE Arizona elegans philipi. This subspecies is found in the plateau region of northeastern Arizona and in the far southeastern corner of the state. It has a longer tail relative to body size than the other subspecies found in Arizona.
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| king cobra |
The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the world's longest venomous snake, with a length up to 5.6 m (18.5 ft).[1] This species, which preys chiefly on other snakes, is found predominantly in forests from India through Southeast Asia to the Philippines and Indonesia. Despite the word "cobra" in its name, this snake is not a member of Naja ("true cobras") but belongs to its own genus.
Identification
The king cobra is the sole member of genus Ophiophagus, while most other cobras are members of the genus Naja. They can be distinguished from other cobras by size and hood marks. King cobras are generally larger than other cobras, and the stripe on the neck is like the symbol "^" instead of a double or single eye(s) shape that may be seen in most of the other Asian cobras. A foolproof method of identification is if on the head, clearly visible, is the presence of a pair of large scales known as occipitals, at the back of the top of the head. These are behind the usual "nine-plate" arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids, and are unique to the king cobra.
Habitat
The king cobra is distributed across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the southern areas of East Asia (southern China) where it is not common. It lives in dense highland forests,[1][4] preferring areas dotted with lakes and streams. King cobra populations have dropped in some areas of its range because of the destruction of forests. It is listed as an Appendix II Animal within CITES.[5]
Behaviour
King cobras, like other snakes, receive chemical information ("smell") via their forked tongues, which pick up scent particles and transfer them to a special sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth.[1] When the scent of a meal is detected, the snake flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location (the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo); it also uses its keen eyesight (king cobras are able to detect moving prey almost 100 m [300 feet] away), intelligence[6] and sensitivity to earth-borne vibration to track its prey.[7] Following envenomation, the king cobra will begin to swallow its struggling prey while its toxins begin the digestion of its victim. King cobras, like all snakes, have flexible jaws. The jaw bones are connected by pliable ligaments, enabling the lower jaw bones to move independently, enabling the King cobra to swallow its prey whole. The expansion of the jaw enables the snake to swallow prey much larger than its head.[1]
King cobras are able to hunt at all times of day, although it is rarely seen at night, leading most herpetologists to classify it as a diurnal species.
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| South Indian king cobra |
Defense
Although the king cobra usually avoids confrontation with humans, it can be aggressive if provoked.[9] If threatened, it rears up the anterior portion of its body when extending the neck, showing the fangs and hissing loudly.[10] It can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. The snake strikes rapidly and the attack range can be as far as 2 meters. It is also known to advance to the enemy with a certain distance due to its far strike range where people can easily misjudge the safe zone. The king cobra can deliver multiple bites in a single attack but adults are known to bite and hold on.[11] In spite of being a highly dangerous snake, it prefers to escape first unless it is cornered or provoked.[9] Since this species is secretive and tends to inhabit less-populated forested regions and dense jungle, it is rarely encountered.
If a king cobra encounters a natural predator, such as the mongoose, which has resistance to the neurotoxins,[12] the snake generally tries to flee. If unable to do so, it forms the distinctive cobra hood and emits a hiss, sometimes with feigned closed-mouth strikes. These efforts usually prove to be very effective, especially since it is more dangerous than other mongoose prey, as well as being much too large for the small mammal to kill with ease.
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| king cobra snake attack |
Venom
The venom of the king cobra consists primarily of neurotoxins, but it also contains cardiotoxic and some other compounds.[8] Toxic constituents are mainly proteins and polypeptides.[14]
During a bite, venom is forced through the snake's 1.25 to 1.5 centimeters (0.49 to 0.59 in) fangs into the wound, and the toxins begin to attack the victim's central nervous system. Symptoms may include severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and paralysis. Envenomation progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. Moreover, king cobra envenomation is clinically known to cause renal failure.[15]
A 1990 book makes a passing statement of a LD50 of 0.34 mg/kg for this species[16], however this value is inconsistent with most toxicological studies.[17][18][19] For example, a recent study lists the LD50 of the king cobra venom as 1.6 mg/kg – 1.8 mg/kg[20], making it's venom one of the least potent among the elapids.[15] This value is further backed up by another toxicological study which lists the LD50 of the king cobra at 1.7 mg/kg.[21] A similar mean LD50 value of 1.93 mg/kg was obtained from the venom of five wild caught king cobras in Southeast Asia (Meier et al 1995).[22]
This species is capable of delivering a large quantity of venom, injecting a dose anywhere from 200-500 milligrams on average, but it can potentially deliver much more than 500 mg.[10][16][23] Though the venom is weak compared to most other elapids,[15] it can still deliver a bite which can potentially kill a human due to the massive amount of venom it delivers in a single bite. Mortality can vary sharply with amount of venom involved, most bites involve nonfatal amounts.[24] According to a research report from the University of Adelaide Department of Toxinology, an untreated bite has a mortality rate of 50-60%[25]
There are two types of antivenom made specifically to treat king cobra envenomations. The Red Cross in Thailand manufactures one, and the Central Research Institute in India manufactures the other; however, both are made in small quantities and are not widely available.[26] Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in mammals.[27] Other components have cardiotoxic,[28] cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects.[29] In Thailand, a concoction of alcohol and the ground root of turmeric is ingested, which has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra, and other snakes with neurotoxic venom.[30]
The haditoxin in the king cobra venom was discovered by Singaporean scientists to be structurally unique and can have unique pharmacological properties.[31] Biochemical studies confirmed that it existed as a non-covalent dimer species in solution. Its structural similarity to short-chain α-neurotoxins and κ-neurotoxins notwithstanding, haditoxin exhibited unique blockade of α7-nAChRs (IC50 180 nM), which is recognized by neither short-chain α-neurotoxins nor κ-neurotoxins.[14]
Reproduction
The king cobra is unusual among snakes in that the female king cobra is a very dedicated parent. She makes a nest for her eggs, scraping up leaves and other debris into a mound in which to deposit them, and remains in the nest until the young hatch.
A female usually deposits 20 to 40 eggs into the mound, which acts as an incubator. She stays with the eggs and guards the mound tenaciously, rearing up into a threat display if any large animal gets too close,[32] for roughly 60 to 90 days.
Inside the mound the eggs are incubated at a steady 28 °C (82 °F). When the eggs start to hatch, instinct causes the female to leave the nest and find prey to eat so she does not eat her young.[33] The baby king cobras, with an average length of 45 to 55 centimeters (18 to 22 in), have venom which is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.
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| king cobra eating snake |
Diet
The king cobra's genus name, Ophiophagus, means "snake-eater", and its diet consists primarily of other snakes, including ratsnakes, small pythons and even other venomous snakes (smaller members of its own species, true cobras (of the genus Naja), and even the much more venomous members of the krait family.[8][13] When food is scarce, they may also feed on other small vertebrates, such as lizards, birds, and rodents. In some cases, the cobra may "constrict" its prey, such as birds and larger rodents, using its muscular body, though this is uncommon.[1][13] After a large meal, the snake may live for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.[1] The king cobra's most common meal is the ratsnake; pursuit of this species often brings king cobras close to human settlements.
The Ribbon Snake or Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis sauritus) is a common snake found throughout North America. It averages 16–35 in (41–89 cm) in length and is a member of the garter snake genus. There are four subspecies of ribbon snake:
Eastern Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus sauritus - brownish back, range extends from New York to Florida, west to the Mississippi River.
Northern Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus septentrionalis - dark brown or black above, range from Maine through Ontario and Indiana.
Southern Ribbon Snake or Peninsula Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus sackeni - tan or brown, range from South Carolina south through Florida.
Western Ribbon Snake or Bluestripe Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus nitae - dark with light blue lateral stripes, Gulf coast of north-central Florida.
Ribbon snakes are also common pets. They are easily found in pet shops for up to 30 dollars. A single snake can fit in a ten gallon terrarium (aquariums work but terrariums are meant for reptiles). They are also very docile.
Food
Ribbon Snakes have a diverse diet consisting of worms, slugs, minnows, insects, small mice, fish, and toads.
Reproduction
Reproduction in Eastern Ribbon Snakes takes place after they emerge from hibernation in the spring time, in April or May. Mating occasionally takes place in the fall, but the female will delay fertilization and development until the next spring. The average gestation period is three months. They average number of young is around 12 but can range anywhere from 4-27. Females give birth in late summer or maybe even the early fall. After birth there is no parental care involved, the young are left to fend for themselves. Most young reach sexual maturity after two years, but most usually wait until the third year.
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| eastern coral snake | |
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Morelia viridis, the green tree python, is a species of python found in New Guinea, islands in Indonesia, and Cape York Peninsula in Australia.
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| Morelia viridis |
Description
Adults average 120–200 cm (3.9–6.6 ft) in length, with a maximum length (although rare) of about 7 feet. The supralabial scales have thermoreceptive pits.[2]
A mostly arboreal species with a striking green or yellow color in adults, the color pattern on this species can vary dramatically from locality to locality. For example, the Aru local is a vivid green with a broken vertebral stripe of white or dull yellow scales, the Sorong local is a bright green with blue highlights and a solid vertical stripe, and the Kofiau local is mostly yellow with varying highlights in white or blue. Cyanomorphs (blue morphs) are also known to occur but are not considered common at this time.[2] Juveniles are polymorphic, occurring in reddish, bright yellow and orange morphs.
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| Morelia viridis. Morph |
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| neonate morelia viridis |
Geographic range
Found in Indonesia (Misool, Salawati, Aru Islands, Schouten Islands, most of Western New Guinea), Papua New Guinea (including nearby islands from sea level to 1,800 m elevation, Normanby Island and the d'Entrecasteaux Islands) and Australia (Queensland along the east coast of the Cape York Peninsula). The type locality given is "Aroe-eilanden" (Aru Islands, Indonesia).[1]
This species is sympatric with M. spilota and the two often compete in the same ecological niche.
Habitat
Its main habitat is in rainforests, bushes, shrubs and trees.
Conservation
The largest threat to the species is habitat destruction due to logging of forests.
Behavior
Primarily arboreal, these snakes have a particular way of resting in the branches of trees; they loop a coil or two over the branches in a saddle position and place their head in the middle. This trait is shared with the emerald tree boa, Corallus caninus, of South America. This habit, along with their appearance, has caused people to confuse the two species when seen outside their natural habitat.
Reproduction
Oviparous, with 1-25 viable eggs per clutch. In the wild eggs are incubated and protected by the female, often in the hollow of a tree. Hatchlings are lemon yellow with broken stripes and spots of purple and brown, or golden or orange/red. Over time the color changes as the animal matures, color of the adult depends on the locality of the animal (some taking many years to finish color change).
As rainforests are so rich in biodiversity with the presence of favourable conditions such as warmth and water, it is no surprise that snakes in general are found in their greatest numbers in the tropical areas of the Earth. (1)
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| GREEN SNAKE |
We’ve even encountered a mention of the fact that “…most large amphibians and reptiles are today exclusively tropical in distribution”. (2)
As a significant part of the wildlife of tropical forests around the world, snakes have an impact on other animals both as predators and prey. (3)
Out of around 2,700 species of snakes in the world, only 1/5 th are venomous; the rest are not. (4)
Without trying to put an exact figure on it, we would assume that rainforests house a similar proportion of venomous and non-venomous snakes.
Learn more about some fascinating Snake Facts here.
Snakes use most types of habitats in a rainforest – most of them live on and under the ground but some of them also inhabit trees and water sources. (5)
Rainforest snakes are carnivores. They employ several ways of attacking other animals. Non-venomous snakes can either pin their prey to the ground or “constrict” them which means that they wrap their own bodies around them in a coil and squeeze them until the victim dies. Venomous snakes normally inject venom into their prey. (6)
Boas (such as anacondas, boa constrictors and pythons) are probably some of the most popular rainforest snakes.
Amazon Snakes
The Amazon forest – the largest tropical rainforest of the world – is home to a great variety of snakes.
As some authors mention: “… snakes appear to be the single most diverse reptile group in the Amazon Basin, where more than 175 snake species have been described”.
The floodplains house a large number of all the reptile species found in the Amazon Basin, and though many species of snakes inhabiting the Amazonian floodplains are aquatic the majority of them are most likely arboreal. Many Amazonian snakes, such as boas, pit vipers and some colubrids, move to live in the forest’s trees during floods.
