yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platura)

 yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platura)

 yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platura)

Description:

The body of this snake is compressed, posteriorly less than half the diameter of the neck; the body scales are juxtaposed, subquadrangular in shape, and in 23–47 rows around thickest part of body; ventral scales, 264–406 in number, are very small and, if distinct, divided by a longitudinal groove, but usually are indistinguishable from adjacent body scales. The head is narrow, with an elongated snout; head shields are entire, nostrils are superior, and nasal shields are in contact with one another; the prefrontal scale is in contact with second upper labial; one or two preoculars, two or three postoculars, and two or three small anterior temporals are present; seven or eight upper labials are found, with four or five below the eye, but separated from the border by a subocular. Colors of the snake are variable, but most often distinctly bicolored, black above, yellow or brown below, with the dorsal and ventral colors sharply demarcated from one another; ventrally, there may be a series of black spots or bars on the yellow or brown background, or the yellow may extend dorsally so there is only a narrow middorsal black stripe, or a series of black crossbars (M.A. Smith, 1943: 476–477, gives more complete descriptions of the color pattern variants). Total length for males is up to 720 millimetres (28 in), for females up to 880 millimetres (35 in); tail length for males is up to 80 millimetres (3.1 in), females up to 90 millimetres (3.5 in).

sea snake

Venom:

The venom of this species is highly potent, like other sea snakes. In Australia, sea snakes are rarely aggressive and bites are uncommon. The subcutaneous LD50 of the venom is 0.067 mg/kg and the venom yield per bite is 1.0–4.0 mg

Habits:

 These snakes breed in warm waters; they are ovoviviparous with a gestation period of about six months. According to Ditmars, females bear live young in tidal pools.They are helpless on land, and they sometimes form large aggregations of thousands in surface waters. These snakes use their neurotoxic venom against their fish prey. No human fatalities from envenomation are known.

Antivenom:

Sea snake venom can cause damage to skeletal muscle with consequent myoglobinuria, neuromuscular paralysis or direct renal damage. The venoms of significant species of sea snake are neutralised with Commonwealth Serum Laboratories Ltd (of Melbourne, Australia) sea snake (Enhydrina schistosa) antivenom. If that preparation is not available, tiger snake or polyvalent antivenom should be used. No deaths have been recorded from bites in Australian waters.[18][19] The E. schistosa antivenom was tested specifically on Pelamus platurus, and it effectively neutralised the venom.

Read More

Chrysopelea ornata:-flying snake or golden tree snake

Chrysopelea ornata is a colubrid snake found in South and Southeast Asia. It is, along with the other species in its genus Chrysopelea, very unusual in that it is capable of a type of gliding flight. It is also rear-fanged. Currently, three subspecies are recognized, including the typical form described here. The snake's striking looks and capability of gliding make it a popular choice for captivity.

Description

Chrysopelea ornata is usually green in color, with black cross-hatching and yellow or gold colored accents. The body, though slender, is far less so than in other tree snakes. It has a flattened head with constricted neck, a blunt nose and large eyes with round pupils.[1]

The lateral, sharp and pronounced keeled condition of the ventrals in association with the normal, not enlarged, vertebral row of scales distinguish this snake. The snakes rarely exceed 40 inches in length, the smallest being measured at 115mm[4] and the largest being 1,360 mm (4 ft 51/2 in) long. The tail is about one-fourth of the total length.[1]

Chrysopelea ornata has two major colour forms, which are largely determined by geographic locality, and their descriptions are given below:[1]

    In Sri Lanka and southern extent of its Indian range, the snake is primarily greenish yellow or pale green. Each scale has a black mesial streak or spot, and is more or less edged with black. The snake also has dark crossbars at intervals. A series of large, flower-shaped, reddish or orange vertebral spots may be present or absent. Ventrals greenish, outside the keel edged with black or spotted. Head black with vellow crossbars and spots. The flower-shaped spots are commoner in Sri Lanka than in south India.

    The second colour variety occurs Southeast Asia lacks the reddish vertebral spots, and has less prominent black crossbars.

Venom
This species is considered mildly venomous, with no confirmed cases of medically significant envenomation.

Red-spotted form of Chrysopelea ornata from North Bengal, India

Geographic range

India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, western Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China (Hong Kong, Hainan, Yunnan), Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi), and the Philippines.

In India Chrysopelea ornata ranges from the Western Ghats, up to the Dangs, Katernia Ghat in Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar, northern West Bengal[1] eastwards to Arunachal Pradesh.[6] It is also found in the forests of the Andaman islands.[1]

Chrysopelea ornata climbing up prior to launching itself into the air

Behaviour

Chrysopelea ornata is diurnal and arboreal. The snake's gliding ability, while not as impressive as that of the paradise flying snake (C. paradisi), still makes it capable of moving from tree to tree with relative ease. These snakes are excellent climbers, being able move across even the smallest of branches and even straight up trees with few branches by using the edges of rough bark. They are frequently seen moving up a coconut palm, or up vertical rock faces in graceful curves, gripping the somewhat uneven surfaces with their scales. They tend to be nervous, fast-moving snakes, and will attempt to flee if disturbed, but will not generally hesitate to bite if handled. They are mildly venomous, but the venom is not considered to be dangerous to humans.[4] It is intended to assist in subduing fast moving, arboreal prey. C. ornata takes small arboreal prey, such as lizards, bats and small rodents.[7] It might also feed on bird eggs and insects. Also it is reported to take snakes occasionally, and to avoid frogs, though frogs are also reported being eaten. The snake stalks or pursues the prey and seizes it by the neck, which is duly crushed in its strong jaws.[4]

Flight
Chrysopelea ornata, like others of its genus, glides or parachutes. This is presumably done to cover distances faster, to escape predators, to catch prey, or to move around in forests. Flying snakes usually parachute from tree to tree, but sometimes launch themselves from trees onto the ground. They have been known to cross as much as 100m.[5]

It does this by climbing up to a height, which it does easily by virtue of its keeled belly scales, and then launching itself into mid-air. The snake contracts its ventral surface inwards to form a U-shaped concave depression along the entire length of their bodies, holding the outer edges of the ventral scales rigid. This concave surface acts like a parachute, and increases air resistance, allowing the snake to glide forward with the thrust of its launch. The snake undulates through the air, in a swimming-like motion. It holds the tail rigidly upwards, and by twisting the tail from side to side, it attains balance. This motion allows it to propel forward, landing clumsily at the end of its flight.[5]

Head of C. ornata with brilliantly coloured tongue exposed

Reproduction
Breeding habits are little known. The snake is oviparous[6] and six to twelve elongated eggs[1] are laid. Gravid females have been obtained in May and June and hatchlings in June. In Bangkok, according to Smith, mating takes place in June. Hatchlings measure 114–152 mm (4 1/2 to 6 in) in length, while the smallest gravid female recorded was 1,093 mm (3 ft 7 in) in length.[1]

Read More

KING COBRA

king cobra

The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the world's longest venomous snake, with a length up to 5.6 m (18.5 ft).[1] This species, which preys chiefly on other snakes, is found predominantly in forests from India through Southeast Asia to the Philippines and Indonesia. Despite the word "cobra" in its name, this snake is not a member of Naja ("true cobras") but belongs to its own genus.

Identification

The king cobra is the sole member of genus Ophiophagus, while most other cobras are members of the genus Naja. They can be distinguished from other cobras by size and hood marks. King cobras are generally larger than other cobras, and the stripe on the neck is like the symbol "^" instead of a double or single eye(s) shape that may be seen in most of the other Asian cobras. A foolproof method of identification is if on the head, clearly visible, is the presence of a pair of large scales known as occipitals, at the back of the top of the head. These are behind the usual "nine-plate" arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids, and are unique to the king cobra.

Habitat

The king cobra is distributed across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the southern areas of East Asia (southern China) where it is not common. It lives in dense highland forests,[1][4] preferring areas dotted with lakes and streams. King cobra populations have dropped in some areas of its range because of the destruction of forests. It is listed as an Appendix II Animal within CITES.[5]

Behaviour

King cobras, like other snakes, receive chemical information ("smell") via their forked tongues, which pick up scent particles and transfer them to a special sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth.[1] When the scent of a meal is detected, the snake flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location (the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo); it also uses its keen eyesight (king cobras are able to detect moving prey almost 100 m [300 feet] away), intelligence[6] and sensitivity to earth-borne vibration to track its prey.[7] Following envenomation, the king cobra will begin to swallow its struggling prey while its toxins begin the digestion of its victim. King cobras, like all snakes, have flexible jaws. The jaw bones are connected by pliable ligaments, enabling the lower jaw bones to move independently, enabling the King cobra to swallow its prey whole. The expansion of the jaw enables the snake to swallow prey much larger than its head.[1]

King cobras are able to hunt at all times of day, although it is rarely seen at night, leading most herpetologists to classify it as a diurnal species.

South Indian king cobra

Defense

Although the king cobra usually avoids confrontation with humans, it can be aggressive if provoked.[9] If threatened, it rears up the anterior portion of its body when extending the neck, showing the fangs and hissing loudly.[10] It can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. The snake strikes rapidly and the attack range can be as far as 2 meters. It is also known to advance to the enemy with a certain distance due to its far strike range where people can easily misjudge the safe zone. The king cobra can deliver multiple bites in a single attack but adults are known to bite and hold on.[11] In spite of being a highly dangerous snake, it prefers to escape first unless it is cornered or provoked.[9] Since this species is secretive and tends to inhabit less-populated forested regions and dense jungle, it is rarely encountered.

If a king cobra encounters a natural predator, such as the mongoose, which has resistance to the neurotoxins,[12] the snake generally tries to flee. If unable to do so, it forms the distinctive cobra hood and emits a hiss, sometimes with feigned closed-mouth strikes. These efforts usually prove to be very effective, especially since it is more dangerous than other mongoose prey, as well as being much too large for the small mammal to kill with ease.

king cobra snake attack

 Venom

The venom of the king cobra consists primarily of neurotoxins, but it also contains cardiotoxic and some other compounds.[8] Toxic constituents are mainly proteins and polypeptides.[14]

During a bite, venom is forced through the snake's 1.25 to 1.5 centimeters (0.49 to 0.59 in) fangs into the wound, and the toxins begin to attack the victim's central nervous system. Symptoms may include severe pain, blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and paralysis. Envenomation progresses to cardiovascular collapse, and the victim falls into a coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure. Moreover, king cobra envenomation is clinically known to cause renal failure.[15]

A 1990 book makes a passing statement of a LD50 of 0.34 mg/kg for this species[16], however this value is inconsistent with most toxicological studies.[17][18][19] For example, a recent study lists the LD50 of the king cobra venom as 1.6 mg/kg – 1.8 mg/kg[20], making it's venom one of the least potent among the elapids.[15] This value is further backed up by another toxicological study which lists the LD50 of the king cobra at 1.7 mg/kg.[21] A similar mean LD50 value of 1.93 mg/kg was obtained from the venom of five wild caught king cobras in Southeast Asia (Meier et al 1995).[22]

This species is capable of delivering a large quantity of venom, injecting a dose anywhere from 200-500 milligrams on average, but it can potentially deliver much more than 500 mg.[10][16][23] Though the venom is weak compared to most other elapids,[15] it can still deliver a bite which can potentially kill a human due to the massive amount of venom it delivers in a single bite. Mortality can vary sharply with amount of venom involved, most bites involve nonfatal amounts.[24] According to a research report from the University of Adelaide Department of Toxinology, an untreated bite has a mortality rate of 50-60%[25]

There are two types of antivenom made specifically to treat king cobra envenomations. The Red Cross in Thailand manufactures one, and the Central Research Institute in India manufactures the other; however, both are made in small quantities and are not widely available.[26] Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in mammals.[27] Other components have cardiotoxic,[28] cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects.[29] In Thailand, a concoction of alcohol and the ground root of turmeric is ingested, which has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra, and other snakes with neurotoxic venom.[30]

The haditoxin in the king cobra venom was discovered by Singaporean scientists to be structurally unique and can have unique pharmacological properties.[31] Biochemical studies confirmed that it existed as a non-covalent dimer species in solution. Its structural similarity to short-chain α-neurotoxins and κ-neurotoxins notwithstanding, haditoxin exhibited unique blockade of α7-nAChRs (IC50 180 nM), which is recognized by neither short-chain α-neurotoxins nor κ-neurotoxins.[14]

Reproduction

The king cobra is unusual among snakes in that the female king cobra is a very dedicated parent. She makes a nest for her eggs, scraping up leaves and other debris into a mound in which to deposit them, and remains in the nest until the young hatch.

A female usually deposits 20 to 40 eggs into the mound, which acts as an incubator. She stays with the eggs and guards the mound tenaciously, rearing up into a threat display if any large animal gets too close,[32] for roughly 60 to 90 days.

Inside the mound the eggs are incubated at a steady 28 °C (82 °F). When the eggs start to hatch, instinct causes the female to leave the nest and find prey to eat so she does not eat her young.[33] The baby king cobras, with an average length of 45 to 55 centimeters (18 to 22 in), have venom which is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.

king cobra eating snake

Diet
The king cobra's genus name, Ophiophagus, means "snake-eater", and its diet consists primarily of other snakes, including ratsnakes, small pythons and even other venomous snakes (smaller members of its own species, true cobras (of the genus Naja), and even the much more venomous members of the krait family.[8][13] When food is scarce, they may also feed on other small vertebrates, such as lizards, birds, and rodents. In some cases, the cobra may "constrict" its prey, such as birds and larger rodents, using its muscular body, though this is uncommon.[1][13] After a large meal, the snake may live for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.[1] The king cobra's most common meal is the ratsnake; pursuit of this species often brings king cobras close to human settlements.

Read More

Eastern indigo snake(Drymarchon couperi)

The Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon couperi) is a large nonvenomous snake with an even blue-black coloration, with some specimens having a reddish-orange to tan color on the throat, cheek and chin. This smooth- scaled snake is considered to be the largest native snake species in the United States with the longest recorded specimen measuring 9.2 feet (2.8 m). The Eastern Indigo Snake gets its name from the glossy iridescent blackish-purple sheen it displays in bright light.

Eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi)

Food habits and behavior

The Eastern Indigo Snake is carnivorous, like all snakes, and will eat any other small animal it can overpower. It has been known to kill its prey by wildly beating it against nearby objects. Captive specimen are frequently fed dead prey to prevent injury to the snake from this violent method of subduing its prey. Its diet has been known to include other snakes (ophiophagy), including venomous ones, as it is immune to the venom of the North American rattlesnakes. Eastern Indigo Snakes eat turtles, lizards, frogs, toads, a variety of small birds and mammals, and eggs.[2][4]

As defensive behavior the Eastern Indigo Snake vertically flattens its neck, hisses, and vibrates its tail. If picked up, it seldom bites.[6]

It often will cohabit with gopher tortoises in their underground burrows, although it will settle for armadillo holes, hollow logs, and debris piles when gopher tortoise burrows can't be found. Hunters, hoping to flush out rattlesnakes, often wind up accidentally killing Indigo Snakes when they illegally pour gasoline into the burrows of gopher tortoises (a practice referred to as "gassing"), even though the tortoises themselves are endangered and protected.

 Preferred habitat

Eastern Indigo Snakes frequent flatwoods, hammocks, dry glades, stream bottoms, cane fields, riparian thickets, and high ground with well-drained, sandy soils.[2] In Georgia, snakes prefer excessively drained, deep sandy soils along major streams, as well as xeric sandridge habitats.[3] Xeric slash pine plantations seem to be preferred over undisturbed longleaf pine habitats.[4] Habitat selection varies seasonally. From December to April Eastern Indigo Snakes prefer sandhill habitats; from May to July snakes shift from winter dens to summer territories; from August through November they are located more frequently in shady creek bottoms than during other seasons.[5]

The Eastern Indigo Snake is most abundant in the sandhill plant communities of Florida and Georgia. These communities are primarily scrub oak-longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) with occasional live oak (Quercus virgianiana), laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), Chapman's oak (Q. chapmanii), and myrtle oak (Q. myrtifolia). Other communities include longleaf pine-turkey oak (Q. laevis), slash pine (Pinus elliottii)-scrub oak, pine flatwoods, and pine-mesic hardwoods.

 Cover requirements

Because the cover requirements of Eastern Indigo Snakes change seasonally, maintaining corridors that link the different habitats used is important. From the spring through fall snakes must be able to travel from sandhill communities and upland pine-hardwood communities to creek bottoms and agricultural fields.[5] In winter Indigo Snakes den in gopher tortoise burrows, which are usually found in open pine forests with dense herbaceous understories.[4] Burrows need to be in areas where there is no flooding. Eastern Indigo Snakes heavily use debris piles left from site-preparation operations on tree plantations.[4] These piles are often destroyed for cosmetic reasons but should be left intact because they provide important hiding cover for both the snake and its prey. Summer home ranges for the Indigo Snake can be as large as 273 acres (229 ha)

The eastern indigo snake is the largest snake in North America.

 

 

Reproduction

Eastern Indigo Snakes are oviparous.[7] The eggs are 75–100 mm (3-4 in.) long by 27–32 mm (1-1¼ in.) wide. Only 5-6 eggs are laid. The hatchlings are 600–700 mm (23½-27½ in.) long.[8]


 Captivity and care

Due to its generally docile nature and attractive appearance, some people find it a desirable pet, although its protected status can make owning one, depending on location, illegal without a permit. Only a few states require permits to own an Eastern Indigo Snake but a federal permit is required to buy one from out of state anywhere in the US. The permit costs $100; information about obtaining one can be found by doing a web search. Most states allow unrestricted in-state sales. To thrive in captivity, this snake requires a larger enclosure than most species do, preferably with something to climb on.

Read More

RIBBON SNAKE

The Ribbon Snake or Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis sauritus) is a common snake found throughout North America. It averages 16–35 in (41–89 cm) in length and is a member of the garter snake genus. There are four subspecies of ribbon snake:

    Eastern Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus sauritus - brownish back, range extends from New York to Florida, west to the Mississippi River.
    Northern Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus septentrionalis - dark brown or black above, range from Maine through Ontario and Indiana.
    Southern Ribbon Snake or Peninsula Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus sackeni - tan or brown, range from South Carolina south through Florida.
    Western Ribbon Snake or Bluestripe Ribbon Snake – Thamnophis sauritus nitae - dark with light blue lateral stripes, Gulf coast of north-central Florida.

Captivity

Ribbon snakes are also common pets. They are easily found in pet shops for up to 30 dollars. A single snake can fit in a ten gallon terrarium (aquariums work but terrariums are meant for reptiles). They are also very docile.

Food

Ribbon Snakes have a diverse diet consisting of worms, slugs, minnows, insects, small mice, fish, and toads.




Reproduction

Reproduction in Eastern Ribbon Snakes takes place after they emerge from hibernation in the spring time, in April or May. Mating occasionally takes place in the fall, but the female will delay fertilization and development until the next spring. The average gestation period is three months. They average number of young is around 12 but can range anywhere from 4-27. Females give birth in late summer or maybe even the early fall. After birth there is no parental care involved, the young are left to fend for themselves. Most young reach sexual maturity after two years, but most usually wait until the third year.

eastern coral snake

Read More

Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)

    Common names: Gaboon viper, butterfly adder, forest puff adder, swampjack,[2] (more).

Bitis gabonica is a venomous viper species found in the rainforests and savannas of Sub-Saharan Africa.[1] This is not only the largest member of the genus Bitis,[3] but also the world's heaviest viperid[2] and it has the longest fangs (up to 2 inches),and the highest venom yield of any venomous snake.[2] Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate race described here.[4]

Description

Adults average 122–152 cm (4 to 5 feet) in length with a maximum of 205 cm (81 in) for a specimen collected in Sierra Leone. The sexes may be distinguished by the length of the tail in relation to the total length of the body: approximately 12% for males and 6% for females. Adults, especially females, are very heavy and stout. One female had the following dimensions:[2]


Total length     174 cm (69 in)
Head width     12 cm (4.7 in)
Girth     37 cm (14.65 in)
Weight (empty stomach)     8.5 kg (19 lbs)



In their description of B. gabonica, Spawls et al.. (2004) give an average length of 80–130 cm (32 to 51.5 in), with a maximum size of 175 cm (69.3 in), saying the species may possibly grow larger still. They acknowledge reports of specimens over 6 feet (1.8 m), or even over 2 m (6.5 ft) in length, but claim there is no evidence to support this.[5]

The head is large and triangular, while the neck is greatly narrowed: almost one-third the width of the head.[2] A pair of horns is present between the raised nostrils — tiny in B. g. gabonica, but much larger in B. g. rhinoceros.[5] The eyes are large and moveable,[2] set well forward,[5] and surrounded by 15–21 circumorbital scales.[2] There are 12–16 interocular scales across the top of the head. 4–5 scale rows separate the suboculars and the supralabials. There are 13–18 supralabials and 16–22 sublabials.[2] The fangs may reach a length of 55 millimetres (2.2 in) :[3] the longest of any venomous snake.[2]

Midbody, there are 28–46 dorsal scale rows, all of which are strongly keeled except for the outer rows on each side. The lateral scales are slightly oblique. The ventral scales number 124–140: rarely more than 132 in males, rarely less than 132 in females. There are 17–33 paired subcaudal scales: males have no fewer than 25, females no more than 23. The anal scale is single.[2]

The color pattern consists of a series of pale, sub-rectangular blotches running down the center of the back, interspaced with dark, yellow-edged hourglass markings. The flanks have a series of fawn of brown rhomboidal shapes, with light vertical central bars. The belly is pale with irregular brown or black blotches. The head is white or cream with a fine, dark central line, black spots on the rear corners, and a dark blue-black triangle behind and below each eye.[5] The iris color is cream, yellow-white, orange[5] or silvery.[6]

Habitat

The Gaboon viper is usually found in rainforests and nearby woodlands, mainly at low altitudes,[6] but sometimes as high as 1500 m.[2] Spawls et al. (2004) mention a maximum altitude of 2100 m.[5] According to Broadley and Cook (1975), it is generally found in environments that are parallel to those occupied by its close relative, B. arietans, which is normally found in more open country.[9]

In Tanzania, this species is found in secondary thickets, cashew plantations, and in agricultural land under bushes and in thickets. In Uganda, they are found in forests and nearby grasslands. They also do well in reclaimed forest areas: cacao plantations in West Africa and coffee plantations in East Africa. They have been found in evergreen forests in Zambia. In Zimbabwe, they only occur in areas of high rainfall along the forested escarpment in the east of the country. In general they may also be found in swamps, as well as in still and moving waters. They are commonly found in agricultural areas near forests and on roads at night.[2]

Venom
Bites are relatively rare, due to their docile nature and the fact that their range is mainly limited to rainforest areas.[3] Due to their sluggishness and unwillingness to move even when approached, people are often bitten after they accidentally step on them, but even then in some cases they may not bite.[11] However, when a bite does occur it should always be considered a serious medical emergency. Even an average bite from an average sized specimen is potentially fatal.[3] Antivenom should be administered as soon as possible to save the victim's life if not the affected limb.[9]

The snake's hemotoxic venom itself is not considered particularly toxic based on tests conducted in mice. In mice, the LD50 is 0.8–5.0 mg/kg IV, 2.0 mg/kg IP and 5.0–6.0 mg/kg SC.[12] However, the venom glands are enormous and each bite produces the largest quantities of venom of any venomous snake. Yield is probably related to body weight, as opposed to milking interval.[2] Brown (1973) gives a venom yield range of 200–1000 mg (of dried venom),[12] A range of 200–600 mg for specimens 125–155 cm in length has also been reported.[2] Spawls and Branch (1995) state that from 5 to 7 ml (450–600 mg) of venom may be injected in a single bite.[3]

A study by Marsh and Whaler (1984) reported a maximum yield of 9.7 ml of wet venom, which translated to 2400 mg of dried venom. They attached "alligator" clip electrodes to the angle of the open jaw of anesthetized specimens (length 133–136 cm, girth 23–25 cm, weight 1.3–3.4 kg), yielding 1.3–7.6 ml (mean 4.4 ml) of venom. Two to three electrical bursts within a space of five seconds apart were enough to empty the venom glands. The snakes used for the study were milked 7 to 11 times over a 12-month period, during which they remained in good health and the potency of their venom remained the same.[2]

Based on how sensitive monkeys were to the venom, Whaler (1971) estimated that 14 mg of venom would be enough to kill a human being: equivalent to 0.06 ml of venom, or 1/50–1/1000 of what can be obtained in a single milking. Marsh and Whaler (1984) wrote that 35 mg (1/30 of the average venom yield) would be enough to kill a man of 70 kilograms (150 lb).[2] Branch (1992) suggested that 90–100 mg would be fatal in humans. Further investigation is needed.

In humans, a bite causes rapid and conspicuous swelling, intense pain, severe shock and local blistering. Other symptoms may include uncoordinated movements, defecation, urination, swelling of the tongue and eyelids, convulsions and unconsciousness.[2] Blistering, bruising and necrosis may be extensive. There may be sudden hypotension, heart damage and dyspnoea.[5] The blood may become incoagulable with internal bleeding that may lead to haematuria and haematemesis.[3][5] Local tissue damage may require surgical excision and possibly amputation.[3] Healing may be slow and fatalities during the recovery period are not uncommon.[5]
 

Read More

RED TAILED RACER (Gonyosoma oxycephalum)

The Red-tailed Green Ratsnake (Gonyosoma oxycephalum) is a species of snake found in Southeast Asia. It is a thin snake with powerful and rough scales on its belly, ideal for climbing and moving in trees. It has smaller, smooth scales on its back.

As its name indicates, the snake has a green body with a red tail (usually brownish), and it also has a dark line horizontally across its eye. On the sides of its black tongue there may be a blue colour.

The red-tailed green ratsnake lives and spends its life in the trees and in cavities in trees. It seldom descends to the ground. It feeds almost exclusively on birds, but in captivity it can be trained to feed on small mammals . The female can reach a length of up to 2.4 m (almost 8 feet), while the male is generally a little bit smaller. Its average life span is 15 years. It reaches sexually maturity at the age of 4 years, and its eggs have a hatching time from 13 to 16 weeks. The female lays on average between 3 and 8 eggs usually between September and January and the hatchlings are about 45 cm (18 inches) long.

When the snake is stressed, it may inflate a bag of air in its neck, making it appear larger in size.

In captivity, it has quite the 'attitude' and may strike at or bite an unwary handler.

The red tailed racer is a medium-bodied arboreal rat snake that occupies lowland to mid-level rainforest. They are common and widely-distributed across the Peninsular. They are usually completely green except for the yellowish labials and lower cheeks. A faint stripe runs from the snout through the eye and fades off towards the neck. The tongue is blue and the tail tip is a dark rusty brown.

Red-tailed rat snakes are aggressive and flare up their throats and bodies when under duress. They hunt birds and rodents in the wild, using constriction as a killing method. Gonyosoma oxcephalum can be differentiated from Elaphe prasina by their much larger size, stripe through the eye and rusty brown tail; features that the green tree racer lacks. in Southeast Asia, this species occurs in Malaysia, Borneo, Thailand and Indonesia, some with different colour forms.

Habitat                   

Found in the sandy soil of sparse woodlands
Behavior

The Gray Rat Snake is larger than most Rat Snakes. They are usually docile, although they can become aggressive when threatened or nervous. Found primarily in the Midwestern United States, the Gray Rat Snake can usually be found in the sandy soil of sparse woodlands.They are mostly arboreal animals, meaning they spend a lot of time in trees. They can often be found hunting or basking on rocks and tree limbs. Gray Rat Snakes do not require hibernation unless they are to be bred. They are quite common in captivity. In the wild, young Gray Rat Snakes are eaten by raptors and carnivorous mammals. The adults grow to a significant length, so they are rarely harmed by anything but humans.

Read More

Big Four (Indian snakes)

The Big Four are the four venomous snake species responsible for causing the most snake bite cases in South Asia (mostly in India).

Indian cobra, Naja naja, probably the most famous of all Indian snakes :-

Common krait, Bungarus caeruleus:-

Russell's viper, Daboia russelii:-

Saw-scaled viper, Echis carinatus:-

Read More